Philadelphia^  February^  1831. 
Just  Published,  hy  Carey  <Sf  Lea, 
id  sold  m  Philadelphia  by  E.  L.  Carey  ^  A.  Hart;  in  New-York 
l&C.^  H.  Carvill ;  in  Boston  by  Carter  ^  Hendee—m  Charleston 
V.  H.  BerreU—'m  New-Orleans  by  W.  MKean;  by  the  principal 
sellers  throughout  the  Union, 

VND  IN  LONDON,  BY  JOHN  MILLER,  ST.  JAMES'S  STREET. 

VOLUME  5. 

CONTAINING  ABOUT  3,000  ARTIOI*ES, 

To  he  continued  at  intervals  of  three  months^) 

OF  THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  AMERICANA: 

A 

POPULAR  DICTIONARY 

OF 

RTS,  SCIENCES,  LITERATURE,  HISTORY,  AND  POLITICS, 

BROUGHT   DOWN   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  AND  INCLUDING  A   COPIOUS 
COLLECTION   OF   ORIOINAL   ARTICLES    IN 

AMERICAN  BIOGRAPHY: 

On  the  hasis  of  the  Seventh  Edition  of  the  German 

CONYERSATIONS-LEXICON. 


Edited  bv  Dr.  FRANCIS  LIERER, 
Assisted  by  EDNVARD  WlGC^iLESVVORTfl,  Esci. 


he  completed  in  twelve  large  volumes,  octavo,  price  to  subscribers,  bound 
in  cloth,  two  dollars  and  a  half  each. 

EACH  VOLUME  WILL  CONTAIN  BETWEEN  GOO  AND  700  PAGES. 


The  Conversation  Lexicon,  of  which  the  seventh  edition  in 
v^elve  volumes  has  lately  been  published  in  Gerniany,  origin- 

ed  about  fifteen  years  since.  It  was  intended  to  supply  a  want 
xasioned  by  the  character  of  the  age,  in  which  the  sciences, 
rts,  trades,  and  the  various  forms  of  knowledtre  and  of  active 
fe,  had  become  so  much  extended  and  diversified,  that  no  in- 
ividual  engaged  in  business  could  become  well  acquainted 
/ith  all  subjects  of  general  interest ;  while  the  wide  diffusion 
f  information  rendered  such  knowledge  essential  tothecharac- 
»r  of  an  accomplished  man.  This  want,  no  existing  works 
/ere  adequate  to  supply.  Books  treating  of  particular  branch- 
s,  such  as  gazetteers,  &c.  were  too  confined  in  character; 
vhile  voluminous  Encyclopaedias  w^ere  too  learned,  scientific, 


4(oO-^ 


'«'  ENCYCLOPEDIA    AMERICANA. 

and  cumbrous,  being  usually  elaborate  treatises,  requiring  much 
study  or  previous  acquaintance  with  the  subject  discussed.  The 
conductors  of  the  Conversation  Lexicon  endeavored  to  select 
from  every  branch  of  knowledge  what  was  necessary  to  a  well- 
informed  mind,  and  to  give  popular  views  of  the  more  abstruse 
branches  of  learning  and  science ;  that  their  readers  might  not 
be  incommoded,  and  deprived  of  pleasure  or  improvement,  by 
ignorance  of  facts  or  expressions  used  in  books  or  conversation. 
Such  a  work  must  obviously  be  of  great  utility  to  every  class  of 
readers.  It  has  been  found  so  much  so  in  Germany,  that  it 
is  met  with  everywhere,  among  the  learned,  the  lawyers,  the 
military,  artists,  merchants,  mechanics,  and  men  of  all  stations. 
The  reader  may  judge  how  well  it  is  adapted  to  its  object, 
from  the  circumstance,  that  though  it  now  consists  of  twelve 
volumes,  seven  editions,  comprising  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand COPIES,  have  been  printed  in  less  than  fifteen  years.  It 
has  been  translated  into  the  Swedish,  Danish  and  Dutch  lan- 
guages, and  a  French  translation  is  now  preparing  in  Paris. 

A  great  advantage  of  this  work  is  its  liberal  and  impartial 
character ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  book  like  the  En- 
c\clop.i:dia  Americana  will  be  found  peculiarly  useful  in  this 
country,  where  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  blessmgs  of  education, 
and  the  constant  intercourse  of  all  classes,  create  a  great  de- 
mand for  general  information. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  work  thus  far,  the  Editors  have 
been  aided  by  many  gentlemen  of  distinguished  ability ;  and  for 
tlie  continuation,  no  efforts  shall  be  spared  to  secure  the  aid  of 
all  who  can,  in  any  way,  contribute  to  render  it  worthy  of 
patronage. 

The  American  Biography,  which  is  ver}^  extensive,  will  be 
furnished  by  Mr.  Walsh,  who  has  long  paid  particular  atten- 
tion to  that  branch  of  our  literature;  and  from  materials  in  the 
collection  of  which  he  has  been  engaged  for  some  years.  For 
obvious  reasons,  the  notices  of  distinguished  Americans  will  be 
confined  to  deceased  individuals :  the  European  biography  con- 
tains notices  of  all  distinguished  living  characters,  as  well  as 
those  of  past  times. 

The  articles  on  Zoology  have  been  written  expressly  for  th^ 
present  edition  by  Dr.  John  D.  Godman;  those  on  Chemistry 
and  Mineralogy,  by  a  gentleman  deeply  versed  in  those  de- 
partments of  science. 

In  relation  to  the  Fine  Arts,  the  work  will  be  exceedingly 
•-ich.  Great  attention  was  given  to  this  in  the  German  work, 
and  tlie  Editors  have  been  anxious  to  render  it,  by  the  necessary 
Addit'ons,  as  perfect  as  possible. 

To  gentlemen  of  the  Bar,  the  work  will  be  peculiarly  valua- 
Ide,  as  in  cases  where  legal  subjects  are  treated,  an  account  is 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    AMERICANA.  3 

given  of  the  provisions  of  American,  English,  French,  Prussian, 
Austrian,  and  Civil  Law. 

The  Publishers  believe  it  will  be  admitted,  that  this  work  is 
one  of  the  cheapest  ever  published  in  this  country.  They  have 
been  desirous  to  render  it  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  best  libraries, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  have  fixed  the  price  so  low  as  to 
put  it  within  the  reach  of  all  who  read. 

Those  who  can,  by  any  honest  modes  of  economy,  reserve  the  sum  of  two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  quarterly,  from  their  family  expenses,  may  pay  for  this 
work  as  fast  as  it  is  published ;  and  we  confidently  believe  that  they  will  find 
at  the  end  that  they  never  purchased  so  much  general,  practical,  useful  infor 
mation  at  so  cheap  a  rate.-— Journal  of  Education. 

If  the  encouragement  to  the  publishers  should  correspond  with  the  testimony 
in  favor  of  their  enterprise,  and  the  beautiful  and  faithful  style  of  its  execu- 
tion, the  hazard  of  the  unlertaking,  bold  as  it  was,  will  be  well  compensated  ; 
and  our  libraries  will  be  enriched  by  the  most  generally  useful  encyclopedic 
dictionary  that  has  been  offered  to  the  readers  of  the  English  language.  Full 
enough  for  the  general  scholar,  and  plain  enough  for  every  tapacitv,  it  is  far 
more  convenient,  in  every  view  and  form,  than  its  more  expensive  c^d  ponder- 
ous predecessors — American  Farmer. 

The  high  reputation  of  the  contributors  to  this  work,  will  not  fail  to  insure 
it  a  favorable  reception,  and  its  own  merits  will  do  the  rest. — Silliinan''s  Journ. 

The  work  will  be  a  valuable  possession  to  every  family  or  individual  that 
can  afford  to  purchase  it;  and  we  take  pleasure,  tlierefore,  in  extending  the 
ku*  wledge  of  its  merits.— JVa^io/iaZ  Intelligencer. 

The  Eucyclopiedia  Americana  is  a  prodigious  improvement  upon  all  that 
has  gone  before  it;  a  thing  for  our  country,  as  well  as  the  country  that  gave 
It  birth,  to  be  proud  of;  an  inexhaustible  treasury  of  useful,  pleasant  and  fa- 
miliar learning  on  every  possible  subject,  so  arranged  as  to  be  spyedily  and 
pafely  referred  to  on  emergency,  as  well  as  on  deliberate  inquiry;  and  Ix'ttcr 
.»;till,  adapted  to  the  understanding,  and  put  within  the  reach  of  the  multitude. 
*  *  *  Th3  Encyclopajdia  Americana  is  a  work  without  which  no  library 
worthy  of  the  name  can  Jiereafter  be  made  up. — Yankee. 

The  copious  information  which,  if  a  just  idea  of  the  whole  may  be  formed 
from  the  first  volume,  this  work  affords  on  American  subjects,  fully  justifica 
its  title  of  an  American  Dictionary;  while  at  the  same  time  the  extent,  varie- 
ty, and  felicitous  disposition  of  its  topics,  make  it  the  most  convenient  and 
satisfactory  Encyclopaedia  that  we  have  ever  seen.— JVa^iowo/  Journal. 

If  the  succeeding  volumes  shall  equal  in  merit  the  one  before  us,  we  may 
confidently  anticipate  for  the  work  a  reputation  and  usefulness  which  ought 
to  secure  for  it  the  most  flattering  encouragement  and  patronage.— J^'erfcraZ 
Oa-ettc. 

The  variety  of  topics  is  of  course  vast,  and  they  are  treated  in  a  manner 
which  is  at  once  so  full  of  information  and  so  interesting,  that  the  work,  in- 
stead of  being  merely  referred  to,  might  be  regularly  perused  with  as  much 
pleasure  as  profit. — Baltimore  American. 

We  view  it  as  a  publication  worthy  of  the  age  and  of  the  country,  and  can- 
not but  balieve  the  discrimination  of  our  countrymen  will  sustain  the  publish- 
ers, and  well  reward  them  for  this  contribution  to  American  Literature. — 
Baltimore  Patriot. 

Wj  cannot  doubt  that  the  sjicceeding  volumes  will  equal  the  first,  and  we 
honco  warmly  recommend  the  work  to  the  patronage  of  the  public,  as  l)eing  by 
far  the  best  work  of  the  kind  ever  offered  for  sale  in  this  country. —  U.  S.  Oaz. 

It  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  those  who  have  been  concerned  in  its  pro- 
duction, and  promises,  in  a  variety  of  resjiects,  to  be  the  best  as  well  as  the 
most  compendious  dictionary  of  the  arts,  sciences,  history,  politics,  biography, 
&c.  which  has  yet  been  compiled.  The  style  of  the  portion  we  have  read 
is  terse  and  prMspicuous ;  and  it  is  really  curious  how  so  much  scientific  an(l 
othf-r  information  could  have  been  so  satisfartorily  communicated  in  such  brief 
limits.     JX".  Y.  F.vcnivg  Pot. 

A  coiiipn  lions  library,  and  invaluable  book  of  rftf»'rence. — JV.  Y.  American, 


4  ENCYCLOPEDIA    AMKJIICANA. 

This  cannot  but  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the  literature  of  the  age.— Jlfer. 
Advertiser. 

The  appearance  of  the  first  volume  of  this  valuable  work  in  this  country,  is 
an  event  not  less  creditable  to  its  enterprising  publishers,  than  it  is  likely  to 
prove  lastingly  beneficial  to  the  public.  When  completed,  according  to  the 
model  presented  by  the  first  volume,  it  will  deserve  to  be  regarded  as  the  spirit 
of  all  the  best  Encyclopaedias,  since  it  comprises  whatever  is  really  desirable 
and  necessary  in  them,  and  in  addition,  a  large  proportion  of  articles  entirely 
original,  or  expressly  written  for  its  pages.  This  is  the  condition  of  all  the 
articles  of  American  Biography,  by  Mr.  Walsh ;  those  on  Zoology,  by  Dr.  God- 
man  ;  and  those  on  Mineralogy  and  Chemistry,  by  a  gentleman  of  Boston, 
distinguished  for  his  successful  devotion  to  those  studies.  The  work  abounds 
with  interesting  and  useful  matter,  presented  in  a  condensed  and  perspicuous 
style ;  nor  is  it  one  of  its  least  coumiendations  that  it  is  to  be  comprised  in 
twelve  octavo  volumes,  which  may  be  placed  on  an  office  table,  or  occupy  a 
&helf  in  the  parlor,  ever  ready  for  immediate  reference,  instead  of  requiring 
almost  a  room  to  itself,  like  its  ponderous  predecessors,  the  Britannica,  Edin- 
burgensis,  &c. 

The  vast  circulation  this  work  has  had  in  Europe,  where  it  has  already  been 
reprinted  in  four  or  five  languages,  not  to  speak  of  the  numerous  German  edi- 
tions, of  which  SEVEN  have  been  published,  speaks  loudly  in  favor  of  its  in- 
trinsic merit,  without  which  such  a  celebrity  could  never  have  been  attained. 
To  every  man  engaged  in  public  business,  who  needs  a  correct  and  ample  book 
of  reference  on  various  topics  of  science  and  letters,  the  Encyclopaedia  Ameri- 
cana will  be  almost  invaluable.  To  individuals  obliged  to  go  io  situations 
where  books  are  neither  numerous  nor  easily  procured,  the  rich  contents  of 
these  twelve  volumes  will  prove  a  mine  which  will  amply  repay  its  purchaser, 
and  be  with  difficulty  exhausted,  and  we  recommend  it  to  their  patronage  in 
the  f 'U  conviction  of  its  worth.  Indeed  it  is  difficult  to  say  to  what  class  of 
readers  such  a  book  would  not  prove  useful,  nay,  almost  indisf)ensable,  since 
it  combines  a  great  amount  of  valuable  matter  in  small  compass,  and  at  mode- 
rate expense,  and  is  in  every  respect  well  suited  to  augment  the  reader's  stock 
of  ideas,  and  powers  of  conversation,  without  severely  taxing  time  or  fatiguing 
attention.  These,  at  least,  are  our  conclusions  after  a  close  and  candid  ex- 
amination of  the  first  volume. — .^m.  Daily  Advertiser. 

We  have  seen  and  carefully  examined  the  first  volume  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Americana,  just  published  by  Carey,  Lea  and  Carey,  and  think  our  readers  nay 
l)e  conjjratulated  upon  the  opportunity  of  making  such  a  valuable  accession  to 
their  libraries. — Aurora. 

The  department  of  American  Biography,  a  subject  of  which  it  should  be 
disgraceful  to  be  ignorant,  to  the  degree  that  many  are,  is,  in  this  work,  a 
prominent  feature,  and  has  received  the  attention  of  one  of  the  most  indefati- 
gable writers  in  this  department  of  literature,  which  the  present  age  can  fwi- 
ms\\.— Boston  Courier. 

According  to  the  plan  of  Dr.  Lieber,  a  desideratum  will  be  supplied ;  the  sub- 
stance of  contemporary  knowledge  will  be  brought  within  a  small  compass; — 
and  the  character  and  uses  of  a  manual  will  be  imparted  to  a  kind  of  publica 
tion  heretofore  reserved,  on  strong  shelves,  for  occasional  reference.  By  those 
who  understand  the  German  language,  the  Conversation  Lexicon  is  consulted 
ten  times  for  one  application  to  any  English  Encyclopaedia. — JSTational  Oaz. 

The  volume  now  published  is  notonly  highly  honorable  to  the  taste,  ability 
and  industry  of  its  editors  and  publishers,  but  furnishes  a  proud  sample  of  tlie 
accuracy  and  elegance,  with  which  the  most  elaborate  and  important  literary 
enterprises  may  now  he  accomplished  in  our  country.  Of  the  manner  in  which 
the  editors  have  thus  far  completed  their  task,  it  is  impossible,  in  the  course  of 
a  brief  newspaijer  article,  to  speak  with  adequate  justice.— JBosfon  Bulletin. 

We  have  looked  at  the  contents,  generally,  of  the  second  volume  of  this 
work,  and  think  it  merits  the  encomiums  vv»-=ch  have  been  bestowed  on  it  in 
the  northern  pai>ors.  It  continues  to  be  particularly  rich  in  the  departments 
of  Biography  and  Natural  History.  When  we  look  at  the  large  mass  of  mis- 
cellaneous knowledge  spread  before  the  reader,  in  a  form  which  has  never  been 
equalled  for  its  condensation,  and  conveyed  in  a  style  that  cannot  be  surpassed 
for  propriety  and  perijpicuity,  we  cannot  but  think  that  the  American  Ency- 
clopaedia deserves  a  plao*;  in  every  collection,  in  which  works  of  reference  furui 
a  portion." — Southern  Patriot. 


THE 


CABINET  OF  HISTORY. 


CONDUCTED  BY  THE 


REV.  DIONYSIUS  LARDNER,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  L;&  E. 

M.R.I.  A.   F.L.S.   F.Z.S.   Hon.F.C.P.S.   M.  Aet. S.  &c.  &c. 


EMINENT  LITERARY  MEN. 


THE 

HISTORY  OF^THE  NETHERLANDS, 

BY 

THOMAS  COLLEY  GRATTAN. 


CAREY  &  LEA.—CHESTNUT  STREET. 
1831, 


THE 


HISTORY 


THE   NETHERLANDS. 


THOMAS  COLLEY  GRATTAN. 


CAREY  &  LEA—CHESTNUT  STREET. 
1831. 


-^^ 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  I. 
B.  C.  50.— A.  D.  250. 

PROM  THE  INVASION  OF  THE   NETHERLANDS  BY  THE  ROMANS  TO  THE 
INVASION  BY  THE  SaLIAN  FRANKS. 

Extent  of  the  Kingdom.— Description  of  the  People.— Ancient  State  of 
the  Low  Countries— Of  the  High  Grounds— Contrasted  with  the  pres- 
ent Aspect  of  the  Country.— Expedition  of  Julius  Ca'sar.— The  Belgae. 
—The  Menapians.—Batavians— Distinguished  among  the  Auxiliaries 
of  Rome.— Decrease  of  national  Feeling  in  Part  of  the  Country. — 
Steady  Patriotism  of  the  Prisons  and  Menapians.— Commencement 
of  Civilization.— Early  Formation  of  the  Dikes.— Degeneracy  of  those 
who  became  united  to  the  Romans. — Invasion  of  the  Netherlands  by 
the  Salian  Franks Page  15 

CHAP.  H 

250—800. 

PROM  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  FRANKS  TO  THE   SUBJUGATION  OF  FRIESLAND 
BY  THE  FRENCH, 

Character  of  the  Franks.— The  Saxon  Tribes.— Destruction  of  the  Sali- 
ans  by  a  Saxon  Tribe.— .Tulian  the  Apostate.— Victories  of  Clovia  in 
Gaul. — Contrast  between  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Provinces  of 
France. — State  of  Friesland. — Charles  Martel.— Friesland  converted 
to  Christianity— Finally  subdued  by  France 22 

CHAP.  HL 

800—1000. 

FROM  THE  CONQUEST  OF  FRIESLAND  TO  THE  FORMATION  OF  HOLLAND. 

Commencement  of  the  Feudal  System  in  the  Highlands. — Flourishing 
State  of  the  Low  Countries. — Counts  of  the  Empire. — Formation  of 
the  Gilden  or  Trades. — Establishment  of  popular  Privileges  in  Fries- 
land.—In  what  they  consisted. — Growth  of  Ecclesiastical  Power. — 
Baldwin  of  Flanders— Created  Count.— Appearance  of  the  Normans. 
— They  ravage  the  Netherlands— Their  Destruction— And  final  Dis- 
appearance. — Division  of  the  Empire  into  Higher  and  Lower  Lor- 
raine.- Establishment  of  the  Counts  of  Lorraine  and  Hainault. — In- 
creasing Power  of  the  Bishops  of  Liege  and  Utrecht.— Their  Jealousy 
of  the  Counts  ;  who  resist  their  Encroachments 28 

A2 


V    ^  ^  ^ 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  IV. 

1018—1384. 

FROM  THE  FORMATION  OF  HOLLAND  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  LOUIS  DE  MALE. 

Origin  of  Holland.— Its  first  Count.— Aggrandizement  of  Flanders. — 
Its  growing  Commerce— Fisheries— Manufactures.— Formation  of 
the  County  of  Guelders— And  of  Brabant.— State  of  Friesland.-State 
of  the  Provinces.— The  Crusades.— Their  good  Effects  on  the  State  of 
the  Netherlands.— Decline  of  the  Feudal  Tower- And  Growth  of  the 
Influence  of  the  Towns.— Great  Prosperity  of  the  Country.— The 
Flemings  take  up  Arms  against  the  French— Drive  them  out  of  Bru- 
ges—And defeat  them  in  the  Battle  of  Courtrai. — Popular  Success  in 
Brabant. — Its  Confederation  with  Flanders. — Rebellion  of  Bruges 
against  the  Count— And  of  Ghent  under  James  d'Arta veldt.— His  Al- 
liance with  England.— His  Power— And  Death.— Independence  of 
Flanders.— Battle  of  Roosbeke.— Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
obtains  the  Sovereignty  of  Flanders 36 

CHAP.  V. 

1384—1506. 

FROM  THE  SUCCESSION  OF  PHILIP  THE  BOLD  TO  THE  COUNTY  OF  FLANDERS 
TO  THE  DEATH  OF  PHILIP  THE  FAIR. 

Philip  succeeds  to  the  Inheritance  of  Brabant>--M akes  War  on  England 
as  a  French  Prince— Flanders  remaining  neuter. — Power  of  the  Houses 
of  Burgundy  and  Bavaria— And  Decline  of  public  Liberty. — Union  of 
Holland,  Hainault,  and  Brabant. — Jacqueline  Countess  of  Holland 
and  Hainault — Flies  from  the  Tyranny  of  her  Husband,  John  of  Bra- 
bant, and  takes  Refuge  in  England. — Murder  of  John  the  Fearless, 
Duke  of  Burgundy. — Accession  of  his  Son,  Philip  the  Good. — His 
Policy. — Espouses  the  Cause  of  John  of  Brabant  against  Jacqueline. — 
Deprives  her  of  Hainault,  Holland,  and  Zealand. — Continues  his  Per- 
secution, and  despoils  her  of  her  last  Possession  and  Titles.— She 
marries  a  Gentleman  of  Zealand — And  dies.— Peace  of  Arras. — Do- 
minions of  the  House  of  Burgundy  equal  to  the  present  Extent  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. — Rebellion  of  Ghent. — Affairs  of  Hol- 
land and  Zealand. — Charles  the  Rash. — His  Conduct  in  Holland. — 
Succeeds  his  Father.— Effects  of  Philip's  Reign  on  the  Manners  of  the 
People. — Louis  XL — Death  of  Charles,  and  Succession  of  Mary. — 
Factions  among  her  Subjects. — Marries  Maximilian  of  Austria. — 
Battle  of  Guinegate. — Death  of  Mary.— *^Taximilian  unpopular. — Im- 
prisoned by  his  Subjects.— Released. — Invades  the  Netherlands.— Sue- 
ceed.s  to  the  Imperial  Throne  by  the  Deatli  of  his  Father. — Philip  the 
Fair  proclaimed  Duke  and  Count. — His  \vi.se  Arhninistration. — Af- 
faire of  Friesland — Of  Guelders.— Charles  of  Egmont. — Death  of 
Philip  the  Fair 49 

CHAP.  VI. 

1506—1555. 

FROM  THE  fiOVERNMENT  OF  MvR«.VRET  OF  AUSTRIA.  TO  THE   ABDICATION 
OF  THE  EMPEROR  CHARLES  V. 

Marg.aret  of  Austria  invested  with  theSovereignty.— Her  Character  and 
Governujinit.— Charles,  Son  of  Philip  Iho  Fair,  created  Duke  of  Bra- 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

bant  and  Count  of  Flanders  and  Holland. — The  Reformation.— Mar- 
tin Luther.— Persecution  of  the  Reformers.— Battle  of  Pavia. — Ces- 
sion of  Utrecht  to  Charles  V.— Peace  of  Cambray. — The  Anabaptists' 
Sedition  at  Ghent.— Expedition  against  Tunis  and  Algiers. — Charles 
becomes  possessed  of  Friesland  and  Guelders. — His  increasing  Sever- 
ity against  the  Protestants. — His  Abdication  and  Death. — Review. — 
Progress  of  Civilization 67 


CPAP.  VII. 
1555—1566. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  PHILIP  II.  OF  SPAIN  TO  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE 
INQUISITION  IN  THE    NETHERLANDS. 

Accession  of  Philip  II. — His  Character  and  Government. — His  Wars 
with  France,  and  with  the  Pope.— Peace  with  the  Fo\>e. — Battle  of 
St.  Cluentin. — Battle  of  Gravelines.— Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis. — 
Death  of  Mary  of  England.— Philip's  Despotism. — Establishes  a  Pro- 
visional Government.— Convenes  the  States-General  at  Ghent. — His 
Minister  Granvelle.— Goes  to  Zealand. — Embarks  for  Spaijti. — Pros- 
perity revives. — Effects  of  the  Provisional  Government. — Marguerite 
of  Parma. — Character  of  Granvelle. — Viglius  de  Berlaimont. — De- 
parture of  the  Spanish  Troops.— Clergy. — Bishops.— National  Discon- 
tent.— Granvelle  appointed  Cardinal. — Edicts  against  Heresy.— Popu- 
lar Indignation. — Reformation. — State  of  Brabant.— Confederacy 
against  Granvelle.— Prince  of  Orange. — Counts  Egmont  and  Horn 
join  the  Prince  against  Granvelle. — Granvelle  recalled. — Council  of 
Trent. — Its  Decrees  received  with  Reprobation. — Decrees  against  Re- 
formers.— Philip's  Bigotry. — Establishment  of  the  Inquisition. — Popu- 
lar Resistance 77 


CHAP  VIII. 

1566. 

COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

Commencement  of  the  Revolution.— Defence  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
— Confederacy  of  the  Nobles. — Louis  of  Nassau. — De  Brederode. — 
Philip  de  St.  Aldegonde. — Assembly  of  the  Council  of  State. — Con- 
federates enter  Brussels— Take  the  Title  of  Gueux—Q,mt  Brussels, 
and  disperse  in  the  Provinces.— Measures  of  Government. — Growing 
Power  of  the  Confederates. — Progress  of  the  Reformation.— Field- 
Preaching. — Herman  Strieker.— Boldness  of  the  Protestants.— Peter 
Dathen. — Ambrose  Ville. — Situation  of  Antwerp.— The  Prince  re- 
pairs to  it,  and  saves  it. — Meeting  of  the  Confederates  at  St.  Trond. 
— The  Prince  of  Orange  and  Count  Egmont  treat  with  them. — Ty- 
ranny of  Philip  and  Moderation  of  the  Spanish  Council.— Image- 
Breakers. — Destruction  of  the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp.— Terror  of 
Government.— Firmness  of  Viglius.— Arbitration  between  the  Court 
and  the  People.— Concessions  made  by  Government.— Restoration  of 
Tranquillity 96 


via  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  IX. 

1566—1573. 

TO  THB  ADMINISTRATION  OF  REQUESENS. 

Philip's  Vindictiveness  and  Hypocrisy  .-—Progress  of  Pfotestantiam. — 
Gradual  Dissolution  of  the  Conspiracy. — Artifices  of  Philip  and  the 
Court  to  disunite  the  Protestants.— Firmness  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
— Conference  at  Termonde.— Egmont  abandons  the  Patriot  Cause. — 
Fatal  Effects  of  his  Conduct.— Commencement  of  Hostilities.— Siege  of 
Valenciennes. — Protestant  Synod  at  Antwerp. — Haughty  Conduct  of 
the  Government. — Royalists  repulsed  at  Bois-le-duc. — Battle  of  Oster- 
weel,  and  Defeat  of  the  Patriots. — Antwerp  again  saved  by  the  Firm- 
ness and  Prudence  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.— Capitulation  of  Valen- 
ciennes.— Success  of  the  Royalists. — Death  of  De  Brederode. — New 
Oath  of  Allegiance — Refused  by  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  others. — 
The  Prince  resolves  on  voluntary  Banishment,  and  departs  for  GJer- 
many. — His  Example  is  followed  by  the  Lords. — Extensive  Emigra- 
tion.— Arrival  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. — Egmont's  Humiliation. — 
Alva's  Powers. — Arrest  of  Egmont  and  others. — Alva's  first  Acts  of 
Tyranny. — Council  of  Blood. — Recall  of  the  Government. — Alva's 
Character.— He  summons  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  is  tried  by  Con- 
tumacy.— Horrors  committed  by  Alva— Desolate  State  of  the  Country. 
— Trial  and  Execution  of  Egmont  and  Horn.— The  Prince  of  Orange 
raises  an  Army  in  Germany,  and  opens  his  first  Campaign  in  the 
Netherlands. — Battle  of  Heiligerlee. — Death  of  Adolphus  of  Nassau. — 
Battle  of  Jemminghem. — Success  and  skilful  Conduct  of  Alva. — Dis- 
persion of  the  Prince  of  Orange's  Army.— Growth  of  the  naval  Power 
of  the  Patriots. — Inundation  in  Holland  and  Friesland. — Alva  re- 
proached by  Philip. — Duke  of  Medina-Celi  appointed  Governor — Is 
attacked,  and  his  Fleet  destroyed  by  the  Patriots— Demands  his  Re- 
call.—Policy  of  the  English  aeeen,  Elizabeth.— The  Dutch  take  Brille. 
— General  Revolt  in  Holland  and  Zealand.— New  Expedition  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange. — Siege  of  Mons. — Success  of  the  Prince. — Siege  of 
Haerlem— Of  Alkmaer.— Removal  of  Alva.— Don  Luis  Zanega  y  Re- 
quesens  appointed  Governor-General 109 

CHAP  X. 
1573—1576. 

TO  THE  PACIFICATION  OF  GHENT. 

Character  of  Requesens.— His  conciliating  Conduct.— Renews  tlie  War 
against  the  States. — Siege  of  Middleburg. — Generosity  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange. — Naval  Victory. — State  of  Flanders. — Count  Louis  of  Nas- 
sau.— Battle  of  Mookerheyde. — Counts  Louis  and  Henry  slain. — Mu- 
tiny of  the  Spanish  Troops.— Siege  of  Leyden.— Negotiations  for  Peace 
at  Breda.— The  Spaniards  take  Zuriczee.— Requesens  dies.— The 
Government  devolves  on  the  Council  of  State. — Miserable  State  of  th« 
Country,  and  Despair  of  the  Patriots.— Spanish  Mutineers.— The 
States-General  are  convoked,  and  the  Council  arrested  by  the  Grand 
Bailiff  of  Brabant.— The  Spanish  Mutineers  sack  and  capture  Maes- 
Etricht,  and  afterwards  Antwerp. — The  States-General  assemble  at 
Ghent  and  assume  the  Government.— The  Pacification  of  Ghent. ...  126 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAP.  XI. 

157G— 1580. 

TO  THE  RENUNCIATION  OF  THE   SOVEREIGNTY  OF  SPAIN  AND  THE   DECLARATION 
OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

Don  John  of  Austria,  Governor-General,  arrives  in  the  Netherlands. — 
Ifis  Character  and  Conduct.— The  States  send  an  Envoy  to  Elizabeth 
of  England. — She  advances  them  a  Loan  of  Money. — The  Union  of 
Brussels.— The  Treaty  of  Marche-enFainenne,  called  the  Perpetual 
Edict.— The  impetuous  Conduct  of  Don  John  excites  the  public  Suspi- 
cion.— He  seizes  on  the  Citadel  of  Namur. — The  Prince  of  Orange  is 
named  Protector  of  Brabant. — The  People  destroy  the  Citadels  of  Ant- 
werp and  other  Towns. — The  Duke  of  Arschot  is  named  Governor  of 
Flanders.— He  invites  the  Archduke  Mathias  to  accept  tJie  Government 
of  the  Netherlands. — Wise  Conduct  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. — Ryhove 
and  Hembj^se  possess  themselves  of  supreme  Power  at  Ghent. — The 
Prince  of  Orange  goes  there  and  establishes  Order. — The  Archduke 
Mathias  is  installed. — The  Priticc  of  Parma  arrives  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  gains  the  Battle  of  Gemblours. — Confusion  of  the  States-general. 
— The  DukeofAlencon  comes  to  their  Assistance.— Dissensions  among 
the  Patriot  Chiefs. — Death  of  Don  John  of  Austria.— Suspicions  of  his 
having  been  poisoned  by  Order  of  Philip  TI.— The  Prince  of  Parma  is 
declared  Governor-General. — The  Union  of  Utrecht.— The  Prince  of 
Parma  takes  the  Field. — The  Congress  of  Cologne  rendered  fruitless 
by  the  Obstinacy  of  Philip.— The  States-General  assemble  at  Antwerp, 
and  issue  a  Declaration  of  National  Independence.— The  Sovereignty 
of  the  Netherlands  granted  to  the  Duke  of  Alencon 134 

CHAP.  xn. 

1580—1584. 

TO  THE  MURDER  OF  THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGE. 

Proscription  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.— His  celebrated  Apology. — Philip 
proposes  sending  back  the  Duchess  of  Parma  as  Governant. — Her  Son 
refuses  to  act  jointly  with  her,  and  is  left  in  the  Exercise  of  his  Power. 
—The  Siege  of  Cambray  undertaken  by  the  Prince  of  Parma,  and  gal- 
lantly defended  by  the  Princess  of  Epinoi.— The  Duke  of  Alencon 
created  Duke  of  Anjou. — Repairs  to  England,  in  hopes  of  marrying 
dueen  Elizabeth. — He  returns  to  the  Netherlands  unsuccessful,  and  is 
inaugurated  at  Antwerp.— The  Prince  of  Orange  desperately  wounded 
by  an  Assassin.— Details  on  John  Jaureguay  and  his  Accomplices. — 
The  People  suspect  the  French  of  the  Crime. — Rapid  Recovery  of  the 
Prince,  who  soon  resumes  his  accustomed  Activity. — Violent  Con- 
duct  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  who  treacherously  attempts  to  seize  on 
Antwerp. — He  is  defeated  by  the  Townspeople. — His  Disgrace  and 
Death. — Ungenerous  Suspicions  of  the  People  against  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  leaves  Flanders  in  Disgust. — Treachery  of  the  Prince  of 
Chimay  and  others. — Treason  of  Hembyse. — He  is  executed  at  Ghent. 
— The  States  resolve  to  confer  the  Sovereignty  on  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
— He  is  murdered  at  Delft. — Parallel  between  him  and  the  Admiral 
Coligny.— Execution  of  Balthazar  Gerard,  his  Assassin.— Complicity 
of  the  Prince  of  Parma 144 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XIII. 
1584—1592. 

TO  THE  DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER  PRINCE  OF  PARMA. 

Effects  of  William's  Death  on  the  History  of  his  Country.— Firm  Conduct 
of  the  United  Trovinces. — They  reject  the  Overtures  of  the  Prince  of 
Parma.— He  reduces  the  whole  of  Flanders.— Deplorable  Situation  of 
the  Country. — Vigorous  Measures  of  the  Northern  States. — Antwerp 
besieged. — Operations  of  the  Siege. — Immense  Exertions  of  the  Be- 
siegers.— The  Infernal  Machine. — Battle  on  the  Dike  of  Couvestien. — 
Surrender  of  Antwerp. — Extravagant  Joy  of  Philip  II. — The  United 
Provinces  solicit  the  Aid  of  France  and  England.— Elizabeth  sends 
them  a  supply  of  Troops  under  the  Earl  of  Liecester. — He  returns  to 
England.— Treachery  of  some  English  and  Scottish  Officers.— Prince 
Maurice  commences  his  Career. — The  Spanish  Armada. — Justin  of 
Nassau  blocks  up  the  Prince  of  Parma  in  the  Flemish  Ports. — Ruin  of 
the  Armada. — Philip's  Mock  Piety  on  hearing  the  News. — Leicester 
dies.— Exploits  and  Death  of  Martin  Schenck.— Breda  surprised.- The 
Duke  of  Parma  leads  his  Army  into  France. — His  famous  Retreat. — 
His  Death  and  Character 15 

CHAP.  XIV. 

1592-1599. 

TO  THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  BELGIUM  AND  THE  DEATH  OF  PHILIP  II. 

Count  Mansfield  named  Governor-General. — State  of  Flanders  and  Bra- 
bant.— The  Archduke  Ernest  named  Governor-General. — Attempts 
against  the  Life  of  Prince  Maurice.— He  takes  Groningen.— Death  of 
the  Archduke  Ernest. — Count  Fuentes  named  Governor-General.— He 
takes  Cambray  and  other  Towns. — Is  soon  replaced  by  the  Archduke 
Albert  of  Austria. — His  high  Reputation. — He  opens  his  first  Campaign 
in  the  Netherlands. — His  Successes. — Prince  Maurice  gains  the  Battle 
of  Turnhout. — Peace  of  Vervins. — Philip  yields  the  Sovereignty  of  the 
Netherlands  to  Albert  and  Isabella. — A  new  Plot  against  the  Life  of 
Prince  Maurice. — Albert  sets  out  for  Spain,  and  receives  the  News  of 
Philip's  Death. — Albert  arrives  in  Spain,  and  solemnizes  his  Marriage 
with  the  Infanta  Isabella.— Review  of  the  State  of  the  Netherlands. .  Id 

CHAP.  XV. 

1599—1604. 

TO  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  PRINCE  MAURICE  AND  SPINOLA. 

Cardinal  Andrew  of  Austria  Governor. — Francisco  Mendoza,  Admiral 
of  Aragon,  invades  the  neutral  States  of  Germany. — His  atrocious 
Conduct. — Prince  Maurice  takes  the  Field. — His  masterly  Movements. 
— Sybilla  of  Cleves  raises  an  Army,  which  is  quickly  destroyed. — 
Great  Exertions  of  the  States-General. — Naval  Expedition  under  Van- 
der  Goes.— Its  complete  Failure.— Critical  Situation  of  the  United 
Provinces. — Arrival  of  the  Archduke  in  Brussels. — Success  of  Prince 
Maurice.— His  Expedition  into  Flanders.— Energy  of  the  Archduke. 
—Heroism  of  Isabella.— Progress  of  Albert's  Army.— Its  first  Success. 
—Firmness  of  Maurice.- The  BattleofNieuport.— Total  Defeat  of  the 
Royalists.— Consequences  of  the  Victory.— Prince  Maurice  returns  to 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Holland.— Negotiations  for  Peace.— Siege  of  Ostentl. — Death  of  Eliza- 
beth of  England. — United  Provinces  send  Ambassadors  to  James  I. — 
Successful  Negotiations  of  Barneveldt  and  the  Duke  of  Sully  in  Lon- 
don.—Peace  between  England  and  Spain.— Brilliant  Campaign  be- 
tween Spinola  and  Prince  Maurice.— Battle  of  Roeroord.— Naval 
Transactions.— Progress  of  Dutch  Influence  in  India.— Establishment 
of  the  East  India  Company 177 

CHAP.  XVI. 

1606—1619. 

TO  THE  SYNOD  OF  DORT  AND  THE  EXECUTION  OF  BARNEVELDT. 

Spinola  proposes  to  invade  the  United  Provinces. — Successfully  opposed 
by  Prince  Maurice.— The  Dutch  defeated  at  Sea.— Desperate  Conduct 
of  Admiral  Klagoon.— Great  naval  Victory  of  the  Dutch,  and  Death 
of  their  Admiral  Heemskirk.— Overtures  of  the  Archdukes  for  Peace.  . 
—How  received  in  Holland.— Prudent  Conduct  of  Barneveldt.— Nego- 
tiations opened  at  the  Hague.— John  de  Neyen,  Ambassador  for  tlie 
Archdukes.— Armistice  for  Eight  Months. — Neyen  attempts  to  bribe 
D'Aarsens,  the  Grefiier  of  the  States-General.— His  Conduct  disclaimed 
by  Verreiken,  Counsellor  to  the  Archdukes.— Great  Prejudices  in  Hol- 
land against  King  James  I.  and  the  English— And  Partiality  towards 
France. — Rupture  of  the  Negotiations.— They  are  renewed. — Truce  for 
Twelve  Years  signed  at  Antwerp.— Gives  great  Satisfaction  in  the 
Netherlands. — Important  Attitude  of  the  United  Provinces. — Conduct 
of  the  Belgian  Provinces.— Disputes  relative  to  Cleves  and  Juliers. — 
Prince  Maurice  and  Spinola  remove  their  Armies  into  the  contested 
States. — Intestine  Troubles  in  the  United  Provinces.— Assassination 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France.— His  Character.— Change  in  Prince  Maurice's 
Character  and  Conduct.— He  is  strenuously  opposed  by  Barneveldt.— 
Religious  Disputes. — King  James  enters  the  Lists  of  Controversy.— 
Barneveldt  and  Maurice  take  opposite  Sides.— The  cautionary  Towns 
released  from  the  Possession  of  England. — Consequences  of  this  Event. 
—Calumnies  against  Barneveldt.— Ambitious  Designs  of  Prince  Mau- 
rice.—He  is  bathed  by  Barneveldt.— The  Republicassistsits  Allies  with 
Money  and  Ships.— Its  great  naval  Power.— Outrages  of  some  Dutch 
Sailors  in  Ireland.— Unresonted  by  King  James.— His  Anger  at  the 
manufacturing  Prosperity  of  the  United  Provinces.— Excesses  of  the 
Gomarists.— The  Magistrates  call  out  the  National  Militia.— Violent 
Conduct  of  Princft  Maurice.— Uncompromising  Steadiness  of  Barne- 
veldt.—Calumnies  against  him. — 31aurice  succeeds  to  the  Title  of 
Prince  of  Orange— And  Acts  with  increasing  Violence. — Arrest  of 
Barneveldt  and  his  Friends.— Synod  of  Dort.— Its  Consequences. — 
Trial,  Condemnation,  and  Execution  of  Barneveldt.— Grotius  and 
Iloogerbeets  sentenced  to  perpetual  Imprisonment.— Ledenburg  com- 
mits Suicide — 189 

CHAP.  XVIL 
1619—1625. 

TO  THE  DEATH  OF  PRINCE  MAURICE. 

The  Parties  of  Arminianism  quite  subdued. — Emigrations.— Grotiua 
resolves  to  attempt  an  Escape  from  Prison.— Succeeds  in  his  Attempt. 


XU  COISTENTS. 

—He  repairs  to  Paris— And  publishes  his  "  Apology."— Expiration  of 
the  Twelve  Years'  Truce.— Death  of  Philip  III.  and  of  the  Archduke 
Albert.— War  in  Germany.— Campaign  between  Prince  Maurice  and 
Spinola.— Conspiracy  against  the  Life  of  Prince  Maurice.— Its  Failure. 
—Fifteen  of  the  Conspirators  executed.— Great  Unpopularityof  Mau- 
rice.—Death  of  Maurice 20 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

1625—1648. 

TO  THE  TREATY  OF  MUNSTER. 

Frederick  Henry  succeeds  his  Brother.— Charles  I.  King  of  England. — 
War  between  France  and  England.— Victories  of  Admiral  Hein.— 
Brilliant  Success  of  Frederick  Henry. — PYuitless  Enterprise  in  Flan- 
ders.— Death  of  the  Archduchess  Isabella. — Confederacy  in  Brabant. — 
Its  Failure,  and  Arrest  of  the  Nobles.— Ferdinand  Prince-Cardinal 
Governor-General.— Treaty  between  France  and  Holland.— Battle  of 
Avein.— Naval  Affairs.— Battle  of  the  Downs.— Van  Tromp.— Nego- 
tiations for  the  Marriage  of  Prince  William  with  the  Princess  Mary 
of  England.— Death  of  the  Prince-Cardinal.— Don  Francisco  de  Mello 
Governor-General.— Battle  of  Rocroy.— Gallantry  of  Prince  William. 
— Death  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  andof  Louis  XIII.— English  Politics.— 
Affairs  of  Germany. — Negotiations  for  Peace. — Financial  Embarrass- 
ment of  the  Republic. — The  Republic  negotiates  with  Spain. — Last 
Exploits  of  Frederick  Henry.— His  Death— And  Character.— William 
II.  Stadtholder.— Peace  of  Munster.— Resentment  of  Louis  XIII.— 
Peace  of  Westphalia. — Review  of  the  Progress  of  Art,  Science,  and 
Manners. — Literature. —  Painting. —  Engraving. —  Sculpture. — Archi- 
tecture.—Finance.— Population.— Commercial  Companies.— Manners.  2: 

CHAP.  XIX. 

1648—1678. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  MUNSTER  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  NIMEOUEN. 

State  of  the  Republic  after  the  Peace  of  Munster. — State  of  England. — 
William  II.  Stadtholder.— His  ambitious  Designs  and  Violent  Conduct. 
— Attempts  to  seize  on  Amsterdam. — His  Death. — Different  Sensations 
caused  by  his  Death. — The  Prerogatives  of  the  Stadtholder  assumed  by 
the  People.— Naval  War  with  England.— English  Act  of  Navigation. 
—Irish  Hostilities.— Death  of  Tromp.— A  Peace  with  England.— Dis- 
turbed State  of  the  Republic— War  with  Denmark.— Peace  concluded. 
— Charles  II.  restored  to  the  English  Throne. — Declares  War  against 
Holland. — Naval  Actions.— Charles  endeavors  to  excite  all  Europe 
against  the  Dutch. — His  Failure.— Renewed  Hostilities. — De  Ruyter 
defeated. — Peace  of  Breda.— Invasion  of  Flanders  by  Louis  XIV.— He 
overruns  Brabant  and  Flanders. — Triple  League,  1668. — Perfidious 
Conduct  of  Charles  II.— He  declares  War  against  Holland,  &c.  as  does 
Louis  XIV.— Unprepared  State  of  United  Provinces.— William  III. 
Prince  of  Orange.— Appointed  Captain-General  and  High  Admiral.— 
Battle  of  Solebay.— The  French  invade  the  Republic— The  States- 
General  implore  Peace. — Terms  demanded  by  Louis  XIV. — And  by 
Charles  II.— Desperation  of  the  Dutch.— The  Prince  of  Orange  pro- 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

claimed  Stadtholder.— Massacre  of  the  De  Witts.— Fine  Conduct  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange.— He  takes  the  Field.— Is  reinforced  by  Spain, 
the  Emperor,  and  Brandenburg.— Louis  XIV.  forced  to  abandon  his 
Conquests.— Naval  Actions  with  the  English.— A  Peace,  1674.— Mili- 
tary Affairs.— Battle  of  Senef.— Death  of  De  Ruyter.— Congress  for 
Peace  at  Nimeguen.— Battle  of  Mont  Cassel.— Marriage  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange.— Peace  of  Nimeguen > 230 

CHAP.  XX. 

1678—1713. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  NIMEGUEN  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT. 

State  of  Euroi)e  subsequently  to  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen.— Arrogant 
Conduct  of  Louis  XIV.— Truce  for  Twenty  Years.— Death  of  Charles  , 
I[.  of  England.— League  of  Augsbourg.— The  Conduct  of  William.— 
He  invades  England.— James  II.  deposed.— William  III.  proclaimed 
Kingof  England.— King  William  puts  himself  at  the  Head  of  the  Con- 
federacy against  Louis  XIV.— And  enters  on  the  War,— Military 
Operations.— Peace  of  Ryswick.— Death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain.— War 
of  Succession.— Death  of  William  III.— His  Character.— Duke  of 
Marlborough.— Prince  Eugene.— Successes  of  the  Earl  of  Peterborough 
in  Spain  and  Portugal.— Louis  XIV.  solicits  Peace.— Conferences  for 
Peace.— Peace  of  Utrecht.— Treaty  of  the  Barrier 246 

CHAP.  XXI. 
1713—1794. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT  TO  THE  INCORPORATION  OF  BELGIUM  WITH 
THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC. 

Quadruple  Alliance.— General  Peace  of  Europe.— Wise  Conduct  of  the 
Republic. — Great  Danger  from  the  bad  State  of  the  Dikes. — Death  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  VL— Maria  Theresa  Empress.— Her  heroic  Con- 
duct.— Battle  of  Dettingen.— Louis  XV.  invades  the  Netherlands. — 
Conferences  for  Peace  at  Breda. — Battle  of  Fontenoy. — William  IV. 
Stadtholder  and  Captain-General.— Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.— Death 
of  the  Stadtholder— Who  is  succeeded  by  his  Son  William  V.— War  of 
Seven  Years.— State  of  the  Republic— William  V.  Stadtholder.— Dis- 
memberment of  Poland.— Joseph  II.  Emperor.— His  attempted  Reforms 
in  Religion.— War  with  England.— Sea-Fight  on  the  Doggerbank. — 
Peace  with  England,  1784.— Progress  of  public  Opinion  in  Europe — In 
Belgium— And  Holland. — Violent  Opposition  to  the  Stadtholder. — 
Arrest  of  the  Princess  of  Orange. — Invasion  of  Holland  by  the  Prus- 
sian Army. — Agitation  in  Belgium. — Vander  Noot. — Prince  Albert  of 
Saxe  Teschen  and  the  Archduchess  Maria  Theresa  joint  Governors- 
General.— Succeeded  by  Count  Murray.— Riots.— Meetings  of  the  Pro- 
visional States.— General  Insurrection.— Vonckists. — Vander  Mersch 
— Takes  the  Command  of  the  Insurgents.— His  Skilful  Conduct.— He 
gains  the  Battle  of  Turnhout. — Takes  Possession  of  Flanders.— Con- 
federation of  the  Belgian  Provinces.— Death  of  Joseph  II. — Leopold 
Emperor. — Arrest  of  Vander  Mersch.— Arrogance  of  the  States-Gene- 
ral of  Belgium. — The  Austrians  over-run  the  Country. — Convention  at 
the  Hague.— Death  of  Leopold.— Battle  of  Jemmappes.— General  Du- 

B 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

rnouriez.— Conquest  of  Belgium  by  the  French— Recovered  by  tbd 
Austrians.— The  Archduke  Charles  Governor-General.— War  in  the 
Netherlands.— Duke  of  York.— The  Emperor  Francis.— The  Battle  of 
Fleurus.— Incorporation  of  Belgium  with  the  French  Republic- 
Peace  of  Leoben.— Treaty  of  Campo-Formio 25' 

CHAP  XXII. 
1794—1813. 

FROM  THE  INVASION  OF  HOLLAND  BY  THE  FRENCH  TO  THE  RETURN  OF  THE 
PRINCE  OF  ORANGE. 

Pichegru  invades  Holland.  —Winter  Campaign.— The  Duke  of  York 
vainly  resists  the  French  Army. — Abdication  of  the  Stadtholder. — Ba- 
tavian  Republic— War  with  England.— Unfortunate  Situation  of 
Holland. — Naval  Fight.— English  Expedition  totheHelder. — Napoleon 
Bonaparte. — Louis  Bonaparte  named  King  of  Holland. — His  popular 
Conduct. — He  abdicates  the  Throne. — Annexation  of  Holland  to  the 
French  Empire— Ruinous  to  the  Prosperity  of.  the  Republic — The 
People  desire  the  Return  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. — Confederacy  to  ef- 
fect this  Purpose.— The  Allied  Armies  advance  towards  Holland.— 
Tlie  Nation  rises  to  throw  off  the  Yoke  of  France. — Count  Styrum 
and  his  Associates  lead  on  that  Movement — And  proclaim  the  Prince 
of  Orange— Who  lands  from  England.— His  first  Proclamation.— ^His 
second  Proclamation 269 

CHAP.  xxni. 

1813—1815. 

FROM  THE  INSTALLATION  OF  WILLIAM  I.  AS  PRINCE-SOVEREIGN  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO. 

Rapid  Organization  of  Holland.— The  Constitution  formed.— Accepted 
by  the  People.— Objections  made  to  it  by  some  Individuals.— Inaugu- 
ration of  the  Prince-Sovereign. — Belgium  is  occupied  by  the  Allies. — 
Treaty  of  Paris. — Treaty  of  London. — Formation  of  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands— Basis  of  the  Government.- Relative  Character  and 
Situation  of  Holland  and  Belgium. — The  Prince-Sovereign  of  Holland 
arrives  in  Belgium  as  Governor-General.— The  fundamental  Law.— 
Report  of  the  Commissioners  by  whom  it  was  framed. — Public  Feeling 
in  Holland— And  in  Belgium. — The  Emperor  Napoleon  invades  France 
— And  Belgium. — The  Prince  of  Orange  takes  the  Field. — The  Duke 
of  Wellington.— Prince  Blucher.— Battle  of  Ligny.— Battle  of  Quatre 
Bras. — Battle  of  Waterloo. — Anecdote  of  the  Prince  of  Orange— Who 
is  wounded.— Inauguration  of  the  King 282 


HISTORY 

OF 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 


CHAP.  I. 
B.  c.  50— A.  D.  250. 


FROM   THE   INVASION    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS    BY   THE   ROMANS    TO 
THE    INVASION    BY    THE    SALIAN    FRANKS. 

The  Netherlands  form  a  kingdom  of  moderate  extent, 
situated  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean,  opposite  to  the  south- 
east coast  of  England,  and  stretching  from  the  frontiers  of 
France  to  those  of  Hanover.  The  country  is  principally- 
composed  of  low  and  humid  grounds,  presenting  a  vast  plain, 
irrigated  by  the  waters  from  all  those  neighboring  states 
which  are  traversed  by  the  Rhine,  the  Mouse,  and  the 
Scheldt.  This  plain,  gradually  rising  towards  its  eastern  and 
southern  extremities,  blends  on  the  one  hand  with  Prussia, 
and  on  the  other  with  France.  Having,  therefore,  no  natural 
or  strongly  marked  limits  on  those  sides,  the  extent  of  the 
kingdom  could  only  be  determined  by  convention ;  and  it  must 
be  at  all  times  subject  to  the  arbitrary  and  varying  influence 
of  European  policy.  Its  greatest  length,  from  nortli  to  south, 
is  about  220  English  miles;  and  its  breadth,  from  east  to 
west,  is  nearly  140. 

Two  distinct  kinds  of  men  inhabit  this  kingdom ;  the  one 
occupying  the  valleys  of  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt,  and  the 
high  grounds  bordering  on  France,  speak  a  dialect  of  the 
language  of  that  country,  and  evidently  belong  to  the  Gallic 
race.  They  are  called  Walloons,  and  are  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  many  peculiar  qualities.  Their  most  prominent 
characteristic  is  a  propensity  for  war,  and  their  principal  source 
of  subsistence  the  working  of  their  mines.  They  form  nearly 
one  fourth  of  the  population  of  the  whole  kingdom,  or  about 
1,300,000  persons.  All  the  rest  of  the  nation  speak  Low 
German,  in  its  modifications  of  Dutch  and  Flemish ;  and  they 
offer  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  Saxon  race, — 
talents  for  agriculture,  navigation,  and  commerce ;  perseve- 
rance rather  than  vivacity ;  and  more  courage  than  taste  for 
the  profession  of  arms.     They  are  subdivided  into  Flemings, 


16  lIISTORr    CF    THF    KETHERLANDS. 

— those  who  were  the  last  to  submit  to  the  house  of  Austria ; 
and  Dutch, — those  who  formed  the  republic  of  the  United 
Provinces.  But  there  is  no  difference  between  these  two 
subdivisions,  except  such  as  has  been  produced  by  political 
and  religious  institutions.  The  physical  aspect  of  the  people 
is  the  same ;  and  the  soil,  equally  low  and  moist,  is  at  once 
fertilized  and  menaced  by  the  waters. 

The  history  of  this  last-mentioned  portion  of  the  nation  is 
completely  linked  to  that  of  the  soil  which  they  occupy.  In 
remote  times,  when  the  inhabitants  of  this  plain  were  few 
and  uncivilized,  the  country  formed  but  one  immense  morass, 
of  which  the  chief  part  was  incessantly  inundated  and  made 
sterile  by  the  waters  of  the  sea.  Pliny  the  naturalist,  who 
visited  the  northern  coasts,  has  left  us  a  picture  of  their  state 
in  his  days.  "  There,"  says  he,  "  the  ocean  pours  in  its  flood 
twice  every  day,  and  produces  a  perpetual  uncertainty  whe- 
ther the  country  may  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  continent 
or  of  the  sea.  The  wretched  inhabitants  take  refuge  on  the 
sand-hills,  or  in  little  huts,  which  tliey  construct  on  the  sum- 
mits of  lofty  stakes,  whose  elevation  is  conformable  to  that  of 
the  highest  tides.  When  the  sea  rises,  they  appear  like 
navigators ;  when  it  retires,  they  seem  as  though  they  had 
been  shipwrecked.  They  subsist  on  the  fish  left  by  the 
refluent  waters,  and  which  they  catch  in  nets  formed  of 
rushes  or  sea-weed.  Neither  tree  nor  shrub  is  visible  on 
these  shores.  The  drink  of  the  people  is  rain-water,  which 
they  preserve  with  great  care ;  their  fuel,  a  sort  of  turf, 
which  they  gather  and  form  with  the  hand.  And  yet  these 
unfortunate  beings  dare  to  complain  against  their  fate,  when 
they  fall  under  the  power  and  are  incorporated  with  the 
empire  of  Rome  !"* 

The  picture  of  poverty  and  suffering  which  this  passage 
presents,  is  heightened  when  joined  to  a  description  of  the 
country.  The  coasts  consisted  only  of  sand-banks  or  slime, 
alternately  overflowed  or  left  imperfectly  dry.  A  little 
farther  inland,  trees  were  to  be  found,  but  on  a  soil  so  marshy 
that  an  inundation  or  a  tempest  threw  down  whole  forests, 
such  as  are  still  at  times  discovered  at  either  eight  or  ten  feet 
depth  below  the  surface.  The  sea  had  no  limits ;  the  rivers 
no  beds  nor  banks ;  the  earth  no  solidity — for,  according  to  an 
author  of  the  third  century  of  our  era,  there  was  not,  in  the 
whole  of  the  immense  plain,  a  spot  of  ground  that  did  not 
yield  under  the  footsteps  of  man.f 

It  was  not  the  same  in  tlie  southern  parts,  which  form  at 

*  Dili.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ^"  i.  t  Eumenius,  Panog.  Const.  Caes. 


EARLY   STATE    OF   THE    COUNTRY.  17 

present  the  Walloon  country.  These  high  grounds  suffered 
much  less  from  the  ravages  of  the  waters.  The  ancient 
forest  of  the  Ardennes,  extending  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Scheldt,  sheltered  a  numerous  though  savage  population, 
which  in  all  things  resembled  the  Germans,  from  whom  they 
derived  their  descent.  The  chase  and  the  occupations  of 
rude  agriculture  sufficed  for  the  wants  of  a  race  less  poor  and 
less  patient,  but  more  unsteady  and  ambitious,  than  the  fish- 
ermen of  the  low  lands.  Thus  it  is  that  history  presents  us 
with  a  tribe  of  warriors  and  conquerors  on  the  southern  fron- 
tier of  the  country ;  while  the  scattered  inhabitants  of  the 
remaining  parts  seemed  to  have  fixed  there  without  a  con- 
test, and  to  have  traced  out  for  themselves,  by  necessity  and 
liabit,  an  existence  which  any  other  people  must  have  con- 
sidered insupportable. 

This  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  in  the  fate  of 
the  inhabitants  appears  more  striking,  when  we  consider  the 
present  situation  of  the  country.  The  high  grounds,  formerly 
so  preferable,  are  now  the  least  valuable  part  of  the  kingdom, 
even  as  regards  their  agriculture ;  while  the  ancient  marshes 
have  been  changed  by  human  industry  into  rich  and  fertile 
tracts,  the  best  parts  of  which  are  precisely  those  conquered 
from  the  grasp  of  the  ocean.  In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the 
solitude  and  desolation  which  once  reigned  where  we  now 
see  the  most  richly  cultivated  fields,  the  most  thriving  vil- 
lages, and  the  wealthiest  towns  of  the  continent,  the  imagina- 
tion must  go  back  to  times  which  have  not  left  one  monument 
of  antiquity  and  scarcely  a  vestige  of  fact. 

The  history  of  the  Netherlands  is,  then,  essentially  that  of 
a  patient  and  industrious  population  struggling  against  every 
obstacle  which  nature  could  oppose  to  its  well-being ;  and,  in 
this  contest,  man  triumphed  most  completely  over  the  ele- 
ments in  those  places  where  they  offered  the  greatest  resist- 
ance. This  extraordinary  result  was  due  to  the  hardy  stamp 
of  character  imprinted  by  suffering  and  danger  on  those  who 
had  the  ocean  for  their  foe ;  to  the  nature  of  their  country, 
which  presented  no  lure  for  conquest ;  and,  finally,  to  the  tol- 
eration, the  justice,  and  the  liberty  nourished  among  men 
lefl  to  themselves,  and  who  found  resources  in  their  social 
state  which  rendered  change  neither  an  object  of  their  wants 
nor  wishes. 

About  half  a  century  before  the  Christian  era,  the  obscurity 
which  enveloped  the  north  of  Europe  began  to  disperse ;  and 
the  expedition  of  Julius  Caesar  gave  to  the  civilized  world  the 
first  notions  of  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  England. 
Caesar,  afler  having  subjugated  the  chief  part  of  Gaul,  turned 
B2 


18  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

his  arms  against  the  warlike  tribes  of  the  Ardennes,  who  re- 
fused to  accept  his  alliance  or  implore  his  protection.  They 
were  called  Belgse  by  the  Romans ;  and  at  once  pronounced 
the  least  civilized  and  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Ceesar  there 
found  several  ignorant  and  poor  but  intrepid  clans  of  war- 
riors, who  marched  fiercely  to  encounter  him ;  and,  notwith- 
standing their  inferiority  in  numbers,  in  weapons,  and  in 
tactics,  they  nearly  destroyed  the  disciplined  armies  of  Rome. 
They  were,  however,  defeated,  and  their  country  ravaged  by 
the  invaders,  who  found  less  success  when  they  attacked  the 
natives  of  the  low  grounds.  The  Menapians,  a  people  who 
occupied  the  present  provinces  of  Flanders  and  x^ntwerp, 
though  less  numerous  than  those  whom  the  Romans  had  last 
vanquished,  arrested  their  progress  both  by  open  fight  and 
by  that  petty  and  harassing  contest, — that  warfare  of  the 
people  rather  than  of  the  soldiery, — so  well  adapted  to  the 
nature  of  the  country.  The  Roman  legions  retreated  for 
the  first  time,  and  were  contented  to  occupy  the  higher  parts, 
which  now  form  the  Walloon  provinces.* 

But  the  policy  of  Csesar  made  greater  progress  than  his 
arms.  He  had  rather  defeated  than  subdued  those  who  had 
dared  tlie  contest.  He  consolidated  his  victories  without 
new  battles ;  he  offered  peace  to  his  enemies,  in  proposing  to 
them  alliance ;  and  he  required  their  aid,  as  friends,  to  carry 
on  new  wars  in  other  lands.  He  thus  attracted  towards  him, 
and  ranged  under  his  banners,  not  only  those  people  situated 
to  the  west  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Mouse,  but  several  other 
nations  more  to  the  north,  whose  territory  he  had  never  seen ; 
and  particularly  the  Batavians — a  valiant  tribe,  stated  by  va- 
rious ancient  autliors,  and  particularly  by  Tacitus,  as  a  frac- 
tion of  the  Catti^  who  occupied  the  space  comprised  between 
these  rivers.f  The  young  men  of  these  warlike  people, 
dazzled  by  the  splendor  of  the  Roman  armies,  felt  proud  and 
happy  in  being  allowed  to  identify  themselves  with  them. 
Caesar  encouraged  this  disposition,  and  even  went  so  far  on 
some  occasions  as  to  deprive  the  Roman  cavalry  of  their 
horses,  on  which  he  mounted  those  new  allies,  who  managed 
them  better  than  their  Italian  riders.  He  had  no  reason  to 
repent  these  measures :  almost  all  his  subsequent  victories, 
and  particularly  that  of  Pharsalia,  being  decided  by  the  valor 
of  the  auxiliaries  he  obtained  from  the  Low  Countries. J 

These  auxiliaries  were  chiefly  drawn  from  Hainault,  Lux- 


*  CfPSfir,  Coinm.  do  Bell.  Call.    Dio.  Cass.  lib.  Iv. 
\  Cfrlier,  Vac.  Hist.  «lo  r.'\nri{?nne  Caule. 
I  l)v:i  Roches,  }\i^\.  (Ir  la  Hclfiqne. 


EFFECTS    OF   THE    II OMAN    ALLIANCE.  19 

embourg,  and  the  country  of  the  Batavians,  and  they  formed 
the  best  cavalry  of  the  Roman  armies,  as  well  as  their 
choicest  light  infantry  force.  The  Batavians  also  signalized 
themselves  on  many  occasions,  by  the  skill  with  which  they 
sw^am  across  several  great  rivers  without  breaking  their 
squadrons'  ranks.  They  were  amply  rewarded  for  their 
military  services  and  hazardous  exploits,  and  were  treated 
like  staunch  and  valuable  allies.  But  this  unequal  connexion 
of  a  mighty  empire  with  a  few  petty  states  must  have  been 
fatal  to  the  liberty  of  the  weaker  party.  Its  first  effect  was 
to  destroy  all  feeling  of  nationality  in  a  great  portion  of  the 
population.  The  young  adventurer  of  this  part  of  the  Low 
Countries,  after  twenty  years  of  service  under  the  imperial 
eagles,  returned  to  his  native  wilds  a  Roman.  The  generals 
of  the  empire  pierced  the  forests  of  the  Ardennes  with  cause- 
ways, and  founded  towns  in  the  heart  of  the  country.  The 
result  of  such  innovations  was  a  total  amalgamation  of  the 
Romans  and  their  new  allies  ;  and  little  by  little  the  national 
character  of  the  latter  became  entirely  obliterated.  But  to 
trace  now  the  precise  history  of  this  gradual  change  would 
be  as  impossible  as  it  will  be  one  day  to  follow  the  progress 
of  civilization  in  the  woods  of  North  America. 

But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  this  metamorphosis  affected 
only  the  inhabitants  of  the  high  grounds,  and  the  Batavians 
(who  were  in  their  origin  Germans)  properly  so  called.  The 
scanty  population  of  the  rest  of  the  country,  endowed  with 
that  fidelity  to  their  ancient  customs  which  characterizes  the 
Saxon  race,  showed  no  tendency  to  mix  with  foreigners, 
rarely  figured  in  their  ranks,  and  seemed  to  revolt  from  the 
.southern  refinement  which  was  so  little  in  harmony  with 
their  manners  and  ways  of  life.  It  is  astonishing,  at  the  first 
view,  that  those  beings,  whose  whole  existence  was  a  contest 
against  famine  or  the  waves,  should  show  less  inclination 
than  their  happier  neighbors  to  receive  from  Rome  an  abun- 
dant recompense  for  their  services.  But,  the  greater  their 
difficulty  to  find  subsistence  in  their  native  land,  the  stronger 
seemed  their  attachment ;  like  that  of  the  Switzer  to  his 
barren  rocks,  or  of  the  mariner  to  the  frail  and  hazardous 
home  that  bears  him  afloat  on  the  ocean.  This  race  of  patriots 
was  divided  into  tw^o  separate  people.  Those  to  the  north  of 
the  Rhine  were  the  Frisons ;  those  to  the  w^est  of  the  Meuse, 
the  Menapians,  already  mentioned. 

The  Frisons  differed  little  from  those  early  inhabitants  of 
the  coast,  who,  perched  on  their  high-built  huts,  fed  on  fish 
and  drank  the  water  of  the  clouds.  Slow  and  successive  im- 
provements taught  them  to  cultivate  the  beans  which  grew 


20  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS. 

wild  among  the  marshes,  and  to  tend  and  feed  a  small  and 
degenerate  breed  of  horned  cattle.  But  if  these  first  steps 
towards  civilization  were  slow,  they  were  also  sure ;  and  they 
were  made  by  a  race  of  men  who  could  never  retrograde  in  a 
career  once  begun. 

The  Menapians,  equally  repugnant  to  foreign  impressions, 
made,  on  their  parts,  a  more  rapid  progress.  They  were 
already  a  maritime  people,  and  carried  on  a  considerable 
commerce  with  England.  It  appears  that  they  exported 
thither  salt,  the  art  of  manufacturing  which  was  well  known 
to  them ;  and  they  brought  back  in  return  marl,  a  most  im- 
portant commodity  for  the  improvement  of  their  land.  They 
also  understood  the  preparation  of  salting  meat,  with  a  per- 
fection that  made  it  in  high  repute  even  in  Italy ;  and,  finally, 
we  are  told  by  Ptolemy  that  they  had  established  a  colony  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Ireland,  not  far  from  Dublin.* 

The  two  classes  of  what  forms  at  present  the  population  of 
the  Netherlands  thus  followed  careers  widely  different,  during 
the  long  period  of  the  Roman  power  in  these  parts  of  Europe. 
While  those  of  the  high  lands  and  the  Batavians  distinguished 
themselves  by  a  long-continued  course  of  military  service  or 
servitude,  those  of  the  plains  improved  by  degrees  their 
social  condition,  and  fitted  themselves  for  a  place  in  civilized 
Europe.  The  former  received  from  Rome  great  marks  of 
favor  in  exchange  for  their  freedom.  The  latter,  rejecting 
the  honors  and  distinctions  lavished  on  their  neighbors, 
secured  their  national  independence,  by  trusting  to  their 
industry  alone  for  all  the  advantages  they  gradually  acquired. 

Were  the  means  of  protecting  themselves  and  their  country 
from  the  inundations  of  the  sea  known  and  practised  by  these 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  coast]  or  did  they  occupy  only 
those  elevated  points  of  land  which  stood  out  like  islands  in 
the  middle  of  the  floods  ]  These  questions  are  amongst  the 
most  important  presented  by  their  history ;  since  it  was  the 
victorious  struggle  of  a  man  against  the  ocean  that  fixed  the 
extent  and  form  of  the  country.  It  appears  almost  certain, 
that  in  the  time  of  Caesar  they  did  not  labor  at  the  construc- 
tion of  dikes,  but  that  they  began  to  be  raised  during  the 
obscurity  of  the  following  century ;  for  the  remains  of  ancient 
towns  are  even  now  discovered  in  places  at  present  over- 
flowed by  the  sea.  These  ruins  often  bring  to  light  traces  of 
Roman  construction,  and  Latin  inscriptions  in  honor  of  the 
Menapian  divinities.f  It  is,  then,  certain  that  they  had 
learned  to  imitate  those  who  ruled  in  the  neighboring  coun- 

*  Des  Roches.  f  M6moires  de  TAcademie  de  Middlebourg. 


EFFECTS    OF   THE    ROMAN    ALLIANCE.  21 

tries:  a  result  by  no  means  surprising;  for  even  England, 
the  mart  of  their  commerce,  and  the  nation  with  which  they 
liad  the  most  constant  intercourse,  was  at  that  period  occu- 
pied by  the  Romans.  But  the  nature  of  their  country  repulsed 
so  effectually  every  attempt  at  foreign  domination,  that  the 
conquerors  of  the  world  left  them  unmolested,  and  established 
arsenals  and  formed  communications  with  Great  Britain  only 
at  Boulogne  and  in  the  island  of  the  Batavians  near  Leyden. 

This  isolation  formed  in  itself  a  powerful  and  perfect  bar- 
rier between  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain  and  those  of  the 
high  grounds.  The  first  held  firm  to  their  primitive  customs 
and  their  ancient  language :  the  second  finished  by  speaking 
Latin,  and  borrowing  all  the  manners  and  usages  of  Italy. 
The  moral  effect  of  this  contrast  was,  that  the  people,  once 
so  famous  for  their  bravery,  lost,  with  their  liberty,  their 
energy  and  their  courage.  One  of  the  Batavian  chieftains, 
named  Civilis,  formed  an  exception  to  this  degeneracy,  and, 
about  the  year  70  of  our  era,  bravely  took  up  arms  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  Romans.  He  effected  prodigies  of  valor 
and  perseverance,  and  boldly  met  and  defeated  the  enemy 
both  by  land  and  sea.  Reverses  followed  his  first  success, 
and  he  finally  concluded  an  honorable  treaty,  by  which  his 
countrymen  once  more  became  the  allies  of  Rome.  But 
after  this  expiring  effort  of  valor,  the  Batavians,  even  though 
chosen  from  all  nations  for  the  body-guards  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  became  rapidly  degenerate;  and  when  Tacitus 
wrote,  ninety  years  after  Christ,  they  were  already  looked 
on  as  less  brave  than  the  Prisons  and  the  other  people  beyond 
the  Rhine.*  A  century  and  a  half  later  saw  them  con- 
founded with  the  Gauls;  and  the  barbarian  conquerors  said, 
that  "  they  were  not  a  nation,  but  merely  a  prey.^^j 

Reduced  into  a  Roman  province,  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Netherlands  was  at  this  period  called  Belgic  Gaul ;  and 
the  name  of  Belgium,  preserved  to  our  days,  has  until  lately 
been  applied  to  distinguish  that  part  of  the  country  situated 
to  the  south  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Mouse,  or  nearly  that 
which  formed  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 

During  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  power  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  observation  was  not  much  excited  towards 
the  rapid  effects  of  this  degeneracy,  compared  with  the  fast- 
growing  vigor  of  the  people  of  the  low  lands.  The  fact  of 
the  Prisons  having,  on  one  occasion,  near  the  year  47  of  our 
era,  beaten  a  whole  army  of  Romans,  had  confirmed  their 
character  for  intrepidity.     But  the  long  stagnation  produced 

*  Tacitus  de  Mor.  Germ.  t  Tacit,  lib.  iv. 


22  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

in  these  remote  countries  by  the  colossal  weight  of  the  eiit- 
pire,  was  broken,  about  the  year  250,  by  an  irruption  of  Ger- 
mans or  Salian  Franks,  who,  passing  the  Rhine  and  the 
Meuse,  established  themselves  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mena- 
pians,  near  Antwerp,  Breda,  and  Bois-le-duc.  All  the  nations 
that  had  been  subjugated  by  the  Roman  power  appear  to 
have  taken  arms  on  this  occasion  and  opposed  the  intruders. 
But  the  Menapians  united  themselves  with  these  new-comers, 
and  aided  them  to  meet  the  shock  of  the  imperial  armies. 
Carausius,  originally  a  Menapian  pilot,  but  promoted  to  the 
command  of  a  Roman  fleet,  made  common  cause  with  his 
fellow-citizens,  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor  of  Great 
Britain,  where  the  naval  superiority  of  the  Menapians  left 
him  no  fear  of  a  competitor.  In  recompense  of  the  assistance 
given  him  by  the  Franks,  he  crossed  the  sea  again  from  his 
new  empire,  to  aid  them  in  their  war  with  the  Batavians,  the 
allies  of  Rome ;  and  having  seized  on  their  islands,  and  mas- 
sacred nearly  the  whole  of  its  inhabitants,  he  there  estab- 
lished his  faithful  friends  the  Salians.  Constantius  and  his 
son  Constantine  the  Great  vainly  strove,  even  after  the  death 
of  the  brave  Carausius,  to  regain  possession  of  the  country : 
but  they  were  forced  to  leave  the  new  inhabitants  in  quiet 
possession  of  their  conquest. 


CHAP.  n. 
250—800. 

FROM  THE   SETTLEMENT  OF    THE   FRANKS  TO  THE   SUBJUGATION   OP 
FRIESLAND. 

From  this  epoch  we  must  trace  the  progress  of  a  totally 
new  and  distinct  population  in  the  Netherlands.  The  Bata- 
vians being  annihilated,  almost  without  resistance,  the  low 
countries  contained  only  the  free  people  of  the  German  race. 
But  these  people  did  not  completely  sympathize  together  so 
as  to  form  one  consolidated  nation.  The  Salians,  and  the 
other  petty  tribes  of  Franks,  their  allies,  were  essentially 
warlike,  and  appeared  precisely  the  same  as  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  high  grounds.  The  Menapians  and  the 
Frisons,  on  the  contrary,  lost  nothing  of  their  spirit  of  com- 
merce and  industry.   The  result  of  this  diversity  was  a  separa- 


CHARACTER  OP  THE  FRANKS.  23 

tion  between  the  Franks  and  the  Menapians.  While  the 
latter,  under  the  name  of  Armoricans,  jomed  themselves 
more  closely  with  the  people  who  bordered  the  Channel,* 
the  Frisons  associated  themselves  with  the  tribes  settled  on 
the  limits  of  the  German  Ocean,  and  formed  with  them  a 
connexion  celebrated  under  the  title  of  the  Saxon  League.f 
Thus  was  formed  on  all  points  a  union  between  the  maritime 
races  against  the  inland  inhabitants ;  and  their  mutual  an- 
tipathy became  more  and  more  developed,  as  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  empire  ended  the  former  struggle  between  liberty 
and  conquest. 

The  Netherlands  now  became  the  earliest  theatre  of  an 
entirely  new  movement,  the  consequences  of  which  were 
destined  to  affect  the  whole  world.  This  country  was  occu- 
pied towards  the  sea  by  a  people  wholly  maritime,  excepting 
the  narrow  space  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Vahal,  of  which 
the  Salian  Franks  had  become  possessed.  The  nature  of  this 
marshy  soil,  in  comparison  with  the  sands  of  Westphalia, 
Guelders,  and  North  Brabant,  was  not  more  strikingly  con- 
trasted than  was  the  character  of  their  population.  The 
Franks,  who  had  been  for  awhile  under  the  Roman  sway, 
showed  a  compound  of  the  violence  of  savage  life  and  the  cor- 
ruption of  civilized  society.  They  were  covetous  and  treach- 
erous, but  made  excellent  soldiers ;  and  at  this  epoch,  w^hich 
intervened  between  the  power  of  imperial  Rome  and  that  of 
Germany,  the  Frank  might  be  morally  considered  as  a  bor- 
derer on  the  frontiers  of  the  middle  ages.|  The  Saxon  (and 
this  name  comprehends  all  the  tribes  of  the  coast  from  the 
Rhine  as  far  north  as  Denmark,)  uniting  in  himself  the  dis- 
tinctive qualities  of  German  and  navigator,  was  moderate 
and  sincere,  but  implacable  in  his  rage.  Neither  of  these 
two  races  of  men  were  excelled  in  point  of  courage ;  but  the 
number  of  Franks  who  still  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
empire  diminished  the  real  force  of  this  nation,  and  naturally 
tended  to  disunite  it.  Therefore,  in  the  subsequent  shock  of 
people  against  people,  the  Saxons  invariably  gained  the  final 
advantage. 

They  had  no  doubt  oflen  measured  their  strength  in  the 
most  remote  times,  since  the  Franks  were  but  the  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  tribes  of  Sicambers  and  others,  against 
whom  the  Batavians  had  offered  their  assistance  to  Csesar. 
Under  Augustus,  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  liad  in  the  same 
way  joined  themselves  with  Drusus,  to  oppose  these  their  old 

*  Procop.  de  Bell.  Goth.  f  Van  Loon,  Alonde  Hist. 

X  Scriptores  Minoi  um  Csesarum,  passim. 


24  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  490. 

enemies.  It  was  also  after  having  been  expelled  by  the 
Frisons  from  Gu  elders,  that  tlie  Salians  had  passed  the  Rhine 
and  the  Meuse ;  but,  in  the  fourth  century,  the  two  people 
recovering  their  strength,  the  struggle  recommenced,  never 
to  terminate — at  least  between  the  direct  descendants  of 
each.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  the  Varni,  a  race  of  Saxons 
nearly  connected  with  those  of  England,  (and  coming,  like 
them,  from  the  coast  of  Denmark,)  wiio  on  this  occasion  struck 
the  decisive  blow  on  the  side  of  the  Saxons.  Embarking  on  * 
board  a  numerous  fleet,  they  made  a  descent  in  the  ancient 
isle  of  the  Batavians,  at  that  time  inhabited  by  the  Salians, 
whom  they  completely  destroyed.*  Julian  the  Apostate,  who 
was  then  with  a  numerous  army  pursuing  his  career  of  early 
glory  in  these  countries,  interfered  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  expulsion,  or  at  least  the  utter  destruction,  of  the 
vanquished:  but  his  efforts  were  unavailing.  The  Salians 
appear  to  have  figured  no  more  in  this  part  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. 

The  defeat  of  the  Salians  by  a  Saxon  tribe  is  a  fact  on 
which  no  doubt  rests.  The  name  of  the  victors  is,  however, 
questionable. f  The  Varni  having  remained  settled  near  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhine  till  near  the  year  500,  there  is  strong 
probability  that  they  were  the  people  alluded  to.  But  names 
and  histories,  which  may  on  this  point  appear  of  such  little 
importance,  acquire  considerable  interest  when  we  reflect 
that  these  Salians,  driven  from  their  settlement,  became  the 
conquerors  of  France ;  that  those  Saxons  who  forced  them  on 
their  career  of  conquest  were  destined  to  become  the  masters 
of  England;  and  that  these  two  petty  tribes,  who  battled  so 
lon^  for  a  corner  of  marshy  earth,  carried  with  them  their 
reciprocal  antipathy  while  involuntarily  deciding  the  destiny 
of  Europe. 

The  defeat  of  the  Franks  was  fatal  to  those  people  who 
had  become  incorporated  with  the  Romans ;  for  it  was  from 
them  that  the  exiled  wanderers,  still  fierce  in  their  ruin,  and 
with  arms  in  their  hands,  demanded  lands  and  herds ;  all,  in 
short,  which  they  themselves  had  lost.  From  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century  to  the  end  of  the  fifth,  there  was  a  succes- 
sion of  invasions  in  this  spirit,  which  always  ended  by  the 
subjugation  of  a  part  of  the  country ;  and  which  was  com- 
pleted about  the  year  490,  by.  Clovis  making  himself  master 
of  almost  the  whole  of  Gaul.J  Under  this  new  empire  not  a 
vestige  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  Ardennes  was  left.  The 

*  Gibbon,  ii.  370.  f  Zosimus. 

I  Abr<ig6  Chron.  Hist,  de  Fiance. 


700.  PROGRESS    OF   TItE    FRENCH.  25 

civilized  population  either  perislied  or  was  reduced  to  slavery, 
and  all  the  high  grounds  were  added  to  the  previous  con- 
quests of  the  Salians. 

But  the  maritime  population,  when  once  possessed  of  the 
whole  coast,  did  not  seek  to  make  the  slightest  progress  to- 
wards the  interior.  The  element  of  their  enterprise  and  the 
object  of  their  ambition  was  the  ocean ;  and  when  this  hardy 
and  intrepid  race  became  too  numerous  for  their  narrow  lim- 
its, expeditions  and  colonies  beyond  the  sea  carried  off  their 
redundant  population.  The  Saxon  warriors  established  them- 
selves near  the  mouths  of  the  Loire ;  others,  conducted  by 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  settled  in  Great  Britain.  It  will  always 
remain  problematical  from  what  point  of  the  coast  these  ad- 
venturers departed;  but  many  circumstances  tend  to  give 
weight  to  the  opinion  which  pronounces  those  old  Saxons  to 
have  started  from  the  Netherlands. 

Paganism  not  being  yet  banished  from  these  countries,  the 
obscurity  which  would  have  enveloped  them  is  in  some  de- 
gree dispelled  by  the  recitals  of  the  monks  who  went  among 
them  to  preach  Christianity.  We  see  in  those  records,  and 
by  the  text  of  some  of  their  early  laws,  that  tliis  maritime  . 
people  were  more  industrious,  prosperous,  and  happy,  than 
those  of  France.*  The  men  were  handsome  and  richly 
clothed;  and  the  land  well  cultivated,  and  abounding  in 
fruits,  milk,  and  honey.  The  Saxon  merchants  carried  their 
trade  far  into  the  southern  countries.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
parts  of  the  Netherlands  which  belonged  to  France  resembled 
a  desert.  The  monasteries  which  were  there  founded  were 
established,  according  to  the  words  of  their  charters,  amidst 
immense  solitudes;  and  the  French  nobles  only  came  into 
Brabant  for  the  sport  of  bear-hunting  in  its  interminable 
forests.  Thus,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  low  lands,  as  far 
back  as  the  light  of  history  penetrates,  appear  in  a  continual 
state  of  improvement,  those  of  the  high  grounds,  after  fre- 
quent vicissitudes,  seem  to  sink  mto  utter  degeneracy  and 
subjugation.  The  latter  wished  to  denaturalize  themselves, 
and  become  as  though  they  were  foreigners  even  on  their 
native  soil ;  the  former  remained  firm  and  faithful  to  their 
country  and  to  each  other. 

But  the  growth  of  French  power  menaced  utter  ruin  to 
this  interesting  race.  Clovis  had  succeeded,  about  the  year 
485  of  our  era,  in  destroying  the  last  remnants  of  Roman 
domination  in  Gaul.  The  successors  of  these  conquerors  soon 
extended  their  empire  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Rhine.  They 

*  Acta  Sanct.  Belgii. 

c 


26  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  710. 

had  continual  contests  with  the  free  population  of  the  Low- 
Countries  and  their  nearest  neighbors.  In  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventh  century,  the  French  king  Clotaire  IL 
exterminated  the  chief  part  of  the  Saxons  of  Hanover  and 
Westphalia ;  and  the  historians  of  those  barbarous  times  unani- 
mously relate  that  he  caused  to  be  beheaded  every  inhabitant 
of  the  vanquished  tribes  who  exceeded  the  height  of  his 
sword.*  ,  The  Saxon  name  was  thus  nearly  extinguished  in 
those  countries ;  and  the  remnant  of  these  various  people  adopted 
that  of  Frisons  (Friesen,)  either  because  they  became  really 
incorporated  with  that  nation,  or  merely  that  they  recognized 
it  for  the  most  powerful  of  their  tribes.  Friesland,  to  speak 
in  the  language  of  that  age,  extended  then  from  the  Scheldt 
to  the  Weser,  and  formed  a  considerable  state.  But  the  as- 
cendency of  France  was  every  year  becoming  more  marked ; 
and  king  Dagobert  extended  the  limits  of  her  power  even  as 
far  as  Utrecht.  The  descendants  of  the  Menapians,  known 
at  that  epoch  by  the  different  names  of  Menapians,  Flemings, 
and  Toxandrians,  fell  one  after  another  directly  or  indirectly 
under  the  empire  of  the  Merovingian  princes ;  and  the  noblest 
family  which  existed  among  the  French, — that  which  subse- 
quently took  the  name  of  Carlovingians, — comprised  in  its 
dominions  nearly  the  whole  of  the  southern  and  western  parts 
of  the  Netherlands. 

Between  this  family,  whose  chief  was  called  duke  of  the 
Frontier  Marshes,  (Dux  Brabanti(B,)  and  the  free  tribes, 
united  under  the  common  name  of  Frisons,  the  same  struggle 
was  maintained  as  that  which  formerly  existed  between  the 
Salians  and  the  Saxons.  Towards  the  year  700,  the  French 
monarchy  was  torn  by  anarchy,  and,  under  "  the  lazy  kings," 
lost  much  of  its  concentrated  power;  but  every  dukedom 
formed  an  independent  sovereignty,  and  of  all  those  that  of 
Brabant  was  the  most  redoubtable.  Nevertheless  the  Fri- 
sons, under  their  king  Radbod,  assumed  for  a  moment  the  su- 
periority; and  Utrecht,  where  the  French  had  established 
Christianity,  fell  again  into  the  power  of  the  pagans.  Charles 
Martel,  at  that  time  young,  and  but  commencing  his  splendid 
career,  was  defeated  by  the  hostile  king  in  the  forest  of  the 
Ardennes ;  and  though,  in  subsequent  conquests,  he  took  an 
ample  revenge,  Radbod  still  remained  a  powerful  opponent. 
It  is  related  of  this  fierce  monarch,  that  he  was  converted  by 
a  Christian  missionary ;  but,  at  the  moment  in  which  he  put 
his  foot  in  the  water  for  the  ceremony  of  baptism,  he  suddenly 
asked  the  priest,  where  all  his  old  Frison  companions  in  arms 

*  Van  Loon,  Alonde  Hist. 


719.  FINAL    CONQUEST    OF    FRIESLAND.  27 

had  gone  after  their  death  1  "  To  hell,"  replied  the  priest. 
"  Well,  then,"  said  Radbod,  drawing  back  his  toot  from  the 
water,  "  I  would  rather  g-o  to  hell  with  them,  than  to  paradise 
with  you  and  your  fellow  foreigners ! "  and  he  refused  to  re- 
ceives the  rites  of  baptism,  and  remained  a  pagan.* 

After  the  death  of  Radbod,  in  719,  Charles  Martel,  now 
become  duke  of  the  Franks,  mayor  of  the  palace,  or  by  what- 
ever other  of  his  several  titles  he  may  be  distinguished,  finally 
triumphed  over  the  long-resisting  Frisons,  He  labored  to 
establish  Christianity  among  them ;  but  they  did  not  under- 
stand the  French  language,  and  the  lot  of  converting  them 
was  consequently  reserved  for  the  English.  St.  Willebrod 
was  the  first  missionary  who  met  with  any  success,  about  the 
latter  end  of  the  seventh  century ;  but  it  was  not  till  towards 
the  year  750  that  this  great  mission  was  finally  accomplish- 
ed, by  St.  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mayence,  and  the  apostle 
of  Germany.  Yet  the  progress  of  Christianity,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  foreign  sway,  still  met  the  partial  resistance 
which  a  conquered  but  not  enervated  people  are  always  capa- 
ble of  opposing  to  their  masters.  St.  Boniface  fell  a  victim 
to  this  stubborn  spirit.  He  perished  a  martyr  to  his  zeal,  but 
perhaps  a  victim  as  well  to  the  violent  measures  of  his  col- 
leagues, in  Friesland,  the  very  province  which  to  this  day 
preserves  the  name. 

The  last  avenger  of  Friesland  liberty  and  of  the  national 
idols  was  the  illustrious  Witikind,  to  whom  the  chronicles  of 
his  country  give  the  title  of  first  azmg,  or  judge.  This  in- 
trepid chieftain  is  considered  as  a  compatriot,  not  only  by  the 
historians  of  Friesland,  but  by  those  of  Saxony ;  both,  it  would 
appear,  having  equal  claims  to  the  honor ;  for  the  union  be- 
tween the  two  people  was  constantly  strengthened  by  inter- 
marriages between  the  noblest  families  of  each.  As  long  as 
Witikind  remained  a  pagan  and  a  freeman,  some  doubt  ex- 
isted as  to  the  final  fate  of  Friesland ;  but  when  by  his  con- 
version he  became  only  a  noble  of  the  court  of  Charlemagne, 
the  slavery  of  his  country  was  consummated. 

*  Vita  Sti.  Bonifacii. 


28  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  800. 

CHAP.  III. 

800—1000. 

FROM  THE  CONQUEST  OF  FRIESLAND  TO  THE  FORMATION  OF  HOLLAND. 

Even  at  this  advanced  epoch  of  foreign  domination,  there 
remained  as  great  a  difference  as  ever  between  the  people  of 
the  hig-h  grounds  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain.  The  lat- 
ter were,  like  the  rest,  incorpora.ted  with  the  great  monarchy ; 
but  they  preserved  the  remembrance  of  former  independence, 
and  even  retained  their  ancient  names.  In  Flanders,  Mena- 
pians  and  Flemings  were  still  found,  and  in  the  country  of 
Antwerp  the  Toxandrians  were  not  extinct.  All  the  rest  of 
the  coast  was  still  called  Friesland.  But  in  the  high  grounds 
the  names  of  the  old  inhabitants  were  lost.  Nations  were 
designated  by  the  names  of  their  rivers,  forests,  or  towns. 
They  were  classified  as  accessories  to  inanimate  things ;  and 
having  no  monuments  which  reminded  them  of  their  origin, 
they  became  as  it  were  without  recollections  or  associations ; 
and  degenerated,  as  may  be  almost  said,  into  a  people  with- 
out ancestry. 

The  physical  state  of  the  country  had  greatly  changed 
from  the  times  of  Cassar  to  those  of  Charlemagne.  Many 
parts  of  the  forest  of  the  Ardennes  had  been  cut  doAvn  or 
cleared  away.  Civilization  had  only  appeared  for  awhile 
among  these  woods,  to  perish  like  a  delicate  plant  in  an  un- 
genial  clime ;  but  it  seemed  to  have  sucked  the  very  sap  from 
the  soil,  and  to  have  left  the  people  no  remains  of  the  vigor 
of  man  in  his  savage  state,  nor  of  the  desperate  courage  of 
the  warriors  of  Germany.  A  race  of  serfs  now  cultivated  the 
domains  of  haughty  lords  and  imperious  priests.  The  clergy 
had  immense  possessions  in  this  country ;  an  act  of  the  fol- 
lowing century  recognizes  14,000  families  of  vassals  as  be- 
longing to  the  single  abbey  of  Nivelle.  Tournay  and  Tongres, 
both  episcopal  cities,  were  by  that  title  somewhat  less  op- 
pressed than  the  other  ancient  towns  founded  by  the  Romans ; 
but  they  appear  to  have  possessed  only  a  poor  and  degraded 
population. 

The  low  lands,  on  the  other  hand,  announced  a  striking 
commencement  of  improvement  and  prosperity.  The  marshes 
and  fens,  which  had  arrested  and  repulsed  the  progress  of 
imperial  Rome,  had  disappeared  in  every  part  of  the  interior. 
The  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt  no  longer  joined  at  their  out- 
lets, to  desolate  the  neighbouring  lands ;  whether  this  change 


800.  COUNTS    OF    THE    EMPIRK.  29 

was  produced  by  the  labors  of  man,  or  merely  by  the  accu- 
mulation of  sand  deposited  by  either  stream  and  forming  bar- 
riers to  both.  The  towns  of  Courtraig,  Bruges,  Ghent,  Ant- 
werp, Berg-op-zoom,  and  Thiol,  had  already  a  flourishing 
trade.  The  last-mentioned  town  contained  in  the  following 
century  fifty-five  churches ;  a  fact  from  which,  in  the  absence 
of  other  evidence,  the  extent  of  the  population  may  be  con- 
jectured. The  formation  of  dikes  for  the  protection  of  lands 
formerly  submerged  was  already  well  understood,  and  regu- 
lated by  uniform  custom.  The  plains  thus  reconquered  from 
the  waters  were  distributed  in  portions,  according  to  their 
labor,  by  those  who  reclaimed  them,  except  the  parts  re- 
served for  the  chieftain,  the  church,  and  the  poor.  This  vital 
necessity  for  the  construction  of  dikes  had  given  to  the  Pri- 
son and  Flemish  population  a  particular  habit  of  union,  good- 
will, and  reciprocal  justice,  because  it  was  necessary  to  make 
common  cause  in  this  great  work  for  their  mutual  preserva- 
tion. In  all  other  points,  the  detail  of  the  laws  and  manners 
of  this  united  people  presents  a  picture  similar  to  that  of  the 
Saxons  of  England,  with  the  sole  exception  that  the  people 
of  the  Netherlands  were  milder  than  the  Saxon  race  properly 
so  called — their  long  habit  of  laborious  industry  exercising 
its  happy  influence  on  the  martial  spirit  original  to  both.  The 
manufacturing  arts  were  also  somewhat  more  advanced  in 
this  part  of  the  continent  than  in  Great  Britain.  The  Fri- 
sons,  for  example,  were  the  only  people  who  could  succeed 
in  making  the  costly  mantles  in  use  among  the  wealthy 
Franks. 

The  government  of  Charlemagne  admitted  but  one  form, 
borrowed  from  that  of  the  empire  in  the  period  of  its  decline 
— a  mixture  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers,  exercised 
in  the  first  place  by  the  emperor,  and  at  second-hand  by  the 
counts  and  bishops.  The  counts  in  those  times  were  not  the 
heads  of  noble  families,  as  they  afterwards  became,  but  offi- 
cers of  the  government,  removable  at  will,  and  possessing 
no  hereditary  rights.  Their  incomes  did  not  arise  from  sala- 
ries paid  in  money,  but  consisted  of  lands,  of  which  they  had 
the  revenues  during  the  continuance  of  their  authority. 
These  lands  being  situated  in  the  limits  of  their  administra- 
tion, each  regarded  them  as  his  property  only  for  tlic  time 
being,  and  considered  himself  as  a  tenant  at  will.  How  un- 
favorable such  a  system  was  to  culture  and  improvement  may 
be  well  imagined.  The  force  of  possession  was,  however, 
frequently  opposed  to  the  seigniorial  rights  of  the  crown ;  and 
thus,  though  all  civil  dignity  and  the  revenues  attached  to  it 
were  but  personal  and  reclaimable  at  will,  still  many  dignita- 
C2 


30  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  800. 

ries,  taking  advantage  of  the  barbarous  state  of  the  country 
in  which  their  isolated  cantons  were  placed,  sought  by  every 
possible  means  to  render  their  power  and  prerogatives  unali- 
enable and  real.  The  force  of  the  monarchical  government, 
which  consists  mainly  in  its  centralization,  was  necessarily 
weakened  by  the  intervention  of  local  obstacles,  before  it 
could  pass  from  the  heart  of  the  empire  to  its  limits.  Thus 
it  was  only  by  perpetually  interposing  his  personal  efforts, 
and  flying,  as  it  were,  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  his  do- 
minions, that  Charlemagne  succeeded  in  preserving  his  au- 
thority. As  for  the  people,  without  any  sort  of  guarantee 
against  the  despotism  of  the  government,  they  were  utterly 
at  the  mercy  of  the  nobles  or  of  the  sovereign.  But  this  state 
of  servitude  was  quite  incompatible  with  the  union  of  social 
powers  necessary  to  a  population  that  had  to  struggle  against 
the  tyranny  of  the  ocean.  To  repulse  its  attacks  with  suc- 
cessful vigor,  a  spirit  of  complete  concert  was  absolutely  re- 
quired ;  and  the  nation  being  thus  united,  and  consequently 
strong,  the  efforts  of  foreign  tyrants  were  shattered  by  its 
resistance,  as  the  waves  of  the  sea  that  broke  against  the 
dikes  by  which  it  was  defied. 

From  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  the  people  of  the  ancient 
Menapia,  now  become  a  prosperous  commonwealtli,  formed 
political  associations  to  raise  a  barrier  against  the  despotic 
violence  of  the  Franks.  These  associations  were  called  Gil- 
den^  and  in  the  Latin  of  the  times  Gildonia,  They  comprised, 
besides  their  covenants  for  mutual  protection,  an  obligation 
which  bound  every  member  to  give  succor  to  any  other,  in 
cases  of  illness,  conflagration,  or  shipwreck.  But  the  grow- 
ing force  of  these  social  compacts  alarmed  the  quick-sighted 
despotism  of  Charlemagne,  and  they  were,  consequently, 
prohibited  both  by  him  and  his  successors.  To  give  a  notion 
of  the  importance  of  this  prohibition  to  the  whote  of  Europe, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  state  that  the  most  ancient  corporations 
(all  which  had  preceded  and  engendered  the  most  valuable 
municipal  rights)  were  nothing  more  than  gilden.  Thus,  to 
draw  an  example  from  Great  Britain,  the  corporative  charter 
of  Berwick  still  bears  the  title  of  Charta  Gildonixe.  But  the 
ban  of  the  sovereigns  was  without  efficacy,  when  opposed  to 
the  popular  will.  The  gilden  stood  their  ground ;  and  within 
a  century  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  all  Flanders  v/as 
covered  with  corporate  towns. 

This  popular  opposition  took,  however,  another  form  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  country,  which  still  bore  the  common 
name  of  Friesland ;  for  there  it  was  not  merely  local  but 
national.    The  Frisons  sucrendod  in  obtainino-  the  sanction 


800.  PRIVILEGES    OF    THE    FRISONS.  31 

of  the  monarch  to  consecrate,  as  it  were,  those  rights  which 
were  established  under  the  ancient  forms  of  government. 
The  fact  is  undoubted  ;  but  the  means  %vhich  they  employed 
are  uncertain.  It  appears  most  probable  that  this  great  privi- 
lege was  the  price  of  their  military  services ;  for  they  held 
a  high  place  in  the  victorious  armies  of  Charlemagne ;  end 
Turpin,  the  old  French  romancer,  alluding  to  the  popular 
traditions  of  his  time,  represents  the  warriors  of  Friesland 
as  endowed  with  the  most  heroic  valor.* 

These  rights,  wiiich  the  Prisons  secured,  according  to  their 
own  statements,  from  Charlemagne,  but  most  undoubtedly 
from  some  one  or  other  of  the  earliest  emperors,  consisted, 
first,  in  the  freedom  of  every  order  of  citizens ;  secondly,  in 
the  right  of  property, — a  right  wiiich  admitted  no  authority 
of  the  sovereign  to  vfolate  by  confiscation,  except  in  cases 
of  downright  treason ;  thirdly,  in  the  privilege  of  trial  by 
none  but  native  judges,  and  according  to  their  national 
usages ;  fourthly,  in  a  very  narrow  limitation  of  the  military 
services  which  they  owed  to  the  king ;  fifthly,  hi  the  heredi- 
tary title  to  feudal  property,  in  direct  line,  on  payment  of 
certain  dues  or  rents.  These  five  principal  articles  sufficed 
to  render  Friesland,  in  its  political  aspect,  totally  different 
from  the  other  portions  of  tlie  monarchy.  Their  privileges 
secured,  their  property  inviolable,  their  duties  limited,  the 
Prisons  were  altogether  free  from  the  servitude  which 
weighed  down  France.  It  will  soon  be  seen  that  these  spe- 
cial advantages  produced  a  government  nearly  analogous  to 
that  which  Magna  Charta  was  the  means  of  founding  at  a 
later  period  in  England. 

The  successors  of  Charlemagne  chiefly  signalized  their 
authority  by  lavishing  donations  of  all  kinds  on  the  church. 
By  such  means  the  ecclesiastical  power  became  greater  and 
greater,  and,  in  those  countries  under  the  sway  of  France, 
was  quite  as  arbitrary  and  enormous  as  that  of  the  nobility. 
The  bishops  of  Utrecht,  Liege,  and  Tournay,  became,  in  the 
course  of  time,  the  chief  personages  on  that  line  of  the  fron- 
tier. They  had  the  great  advantage  over  the  counts,  of  not 
being  subjected  to  capricious  or  tyrannical  removals.  *  They 
therefore,  even  in  civil  affairs,  played  a  more  considerable 
part  than  the  latter ;  and  began  to  render  themselves  more 
and  more  independent  in  their  episcopal  cities,  which  were 
soon  to  become  so  many  principalities.  The  counts,  on  their 
parts,  used  their  best  exertions  to  wear  out,  if  they  had  not 
the  strength  to  break,  the  chains  whicli  bound  tliem  to  the 


*  Oude  VrieF«?lie  Wotten,  book  u. 


32  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  864. 

footstool  of  the  monarch.  They  were  not  all  now  dependent 
on  the  same  sovereign ;  for  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  was 
divided  among  his  successors:  France,  properly  so  called, 
was  bounded  by  the  Scheldt ;  the  country  to  the  eastward  of . 
that  river,  that  is  to  say,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands, 
belonged  to  Lorraine  and  Germany. 

.  In  this  state  of  things,  it  happened  that  in  the  year  864, 
Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald  king  of  France,  having 
survived  her  husband  Ethelwolf  king  of  England,  became 
attached  to  a  powerful  Flemish  chieftain  called  Baldwin.  It 
is  not  quite  certain  whether  he  was  count,  forester,  marquis, 
or  protector  of  the  frontiers ;  but  he  certainly  enjoyed,  no 
matter  under  what  title,  considerable  authority  in  the  coun- 
try ;  since  the  pope  on  one  occasion  wrote  to  Charles  the 
Bald  to  beware  of  offending  him,  lest  he  should  join  the  Nor- 
mans, and  open  to  them  an  entrance  into  France.  He  carried 
off  Judith  to  his  possessions  in  Flanders.  The  king  her 
father,  after  many  ineffectual  threats,  was  forced  to  consent 
to  their  union ;  and  confirmed  to  Baldwin,  with  the  title  of 
count,  the  hereditary  government  of  all  the  country  between 
the  Scheldt  and  the  Somme,  a  river  of  Picardy.  This  was 
the  commencement  of  the  celebrated  county  of  Flanders; 
and  this  Baldwin  is  designated  in  history  by  the  surname  of 
BraS'de-fer  (iron-handed,)  to  which  his  courage  had  justly 
entitled  him. 

The  Belgian  historians  are  also  desirous  of  placing  about 
this  epoch  the  first  counts  of  Hainault,  and  even  of  Holland. 
But  though  it  may  be  true  that  tlie  chief  families  of  each 
canton  sought  then,  as  at  all  times,  to  shake  off  the  yoke,  the 
epoch  of  tlieir  independence  can  only  be  fixed  at  the  later 
period  at  which  they  obtained  or  enforced  the  privilege  of  not 
being  deprived  of  their  titles  and  their  feudal  estates.  The 
counts  of  the  high  grounds,  and  those  of  Friesland,  enjoyed 
at  the  utmost  but  a  fortuitous  privilege  of  continuance  in 
their  rank.  Several  foreigners  had  gained  a  footing  and  an 
authority  in  the  country:  among  others  Wickmand,  from 
whom  descended  the  chatelains  of  Ghent ;  and  the  counts  of 
Holland,  and  Heriold,  a  Norman  prince  who  had  been  ban- 
ished from  his  own  country.  This  name  of  Normans,  hardly 
known  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  soon  became  too 
celebrated.  It  designated  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  who,  driven  by  rapacity  and  want,  in- 
fested the  neighboring  sens.  The  asylum  allowed  in  the  do- 
minions of  the  emperors  to  some  of  those  exiled  outlaws, 
and  the  imprudent  provocations  given  by  these  latter  to  their 
advent!irons  countrymen,  attracted  various  bands  of  Norman 


891.  INVASTOr^S    BY   THE    N0R3IANS.  33 

pirates  to  the  shores  of  Guelders  ;  a.nd  from  desultory  descents 
upon  the  coast,  they  soon  came  to  inundate  the  interior  of 
the  country.  Flanders  alone  successfully  resisted  them  during" 
the  life  of  Baldwin  Bras-de-fer ;  but  after  the  death  of  this 
brave  chieftain  there  was  not  a  province  of  the  whole  country 
that  was  not  ravaged  by  these  invaders.  Their  multiplied 
expeditions  threw  back  the  Netherlands  at  least  tw^o  centu- 
ries, if,  indeed,  any  calculation  of  the  kind  may  be  fairly 
formed  respecting  the  relative  state  of  population  and  im- 
provement on  the  imperfect  data  that  are  left  us.  Several 
cantons  became  deserted.  The  chief  cities  were  reduced  to 
heaps  of  ruins.  The  German  emperors  vainly  interposed  for 
the  relief  of  their  unfortunate  vassals.  Finally,  an  agree- 
ment was  entered  into,  in  the  year  882,  with  Godfrey  the 
king  or  leader  of  the  Normans,  by  which  a  peace  was  pur- 
chased on  condition  of  paying  him  a  large  subsidy,  and  ceding 
to  him  the  government  of  Friesland.  But,  in  about  two  years 
from  this  period,  the  fierce  barbarian  began  to  complain  that 
the  country  he  had  thus  gained  did  not  produce  grapes,  and 
the  present  inspiration  of  his  rapacity  seemed  to  be  the 
blooming  vineyards  of  France.  The  emperor  Charles  the 
Fat,  anticipating  the  consequence  of  a  rupture  with  Godfrey, 
enticed  him  to  an  interview,  in  which  he  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated.  His  followers,  attacked  on  all  points  by  tlie 
people  of  Friesland,  perished  almost  to  a  man ;  and  their  de- 
struction was  completed,  in  891,  by  Arnoul  the  Germanic. 
From  that  period,  the  scourge  of  Norman  depredation  became 
gradually  less  felt.  They  now  made  but  short  and.  desultory 
attempts  on  the  coast ;  and  their  last  expedition  appears  to 
have  taken  place  about  the  year  1000,  w^hen  tliey  threatened, 
but  did  not  succeed  in  seizing  on,  the  city  of  Utrecht. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  although  for  the  space  of  150  years  tlie 
Netherlands  were  continually  the  scene  of  invasion  and  devas- 
tation by  these  northern  barbarians,  the  political  state  of  the 
country  underwent  no  important  clianges.  The  emperors 
of  Germany  were  sovereigns  of  the  whole  country,  with  the 
exception  of  Flanders.  These  portions  of  the  empire  were 
still  called  Lorraine,  as  well  as  all  which  tliey  possessed  of 
what  is  now  called  France,  and  which  \vas  that  part  forming 
the  appanage  of  Lothaire  and  of  the  JjOtheringian  kings. 
The  great  difficulty  of  maintaining  subordination  among 
the  numerous  chieftains  of  this  country  caused  it,  in  958, 
to  be  divided  into  two  governments,  which  were  called 
Higher  and  I^wer  Lorraine.  The  latter  portion  comprised 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands,  which  thus  became 
governed  by  a  lieutenant  of  the  emperors.     Godfrey  count 


34  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  990. 

of  Ardenne  was  the  first  who  filled  this  place ;  and  he  soon 
felt  all  the  perils  of  the  situation.  The  other  counts  saw, 
with  a  jealous  eye,  their  equal  now  promoted  into  a  superior. 
Two  of  the  most  powerful,  Lambert  and  Reginald,  were 
brothers.  They  made  common  cause  against  the  new  duke ; 
and  after  a  desperate  struggle,  which  did  not  cease  till  the 
year  985,  they  gained  a  species  of  imperfect  independence, — 
Lambert  becoming  the  root  from  which  sprang  the  counts 
of  Louvain,  and  Reginald  that  of  the  counts  of  Hainault. 

The  emperor  Othon  II.  who  upheld  the  authority  of  his 
lieutenant  Godfrey,  became  convinced  that  the  imperial 
power  was  too  weak  to  resist  singly  the  opposition  of  the 
nobles  of  the  country.  He  had  therefore  transferred,  about 
the  year  980,  the  title  of  duke  to  a  young  prince  of  the  royal 
house  of  France ;  and  we  thus  see  the  duchy  of  Lower  Lor- 
raine governed,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  by  the  last  two 
shoots  of  the  branch  of  Charlemagne,  the  dukes  Charles  and 
Othon  of  France,  son  and  grandson  of  Louis  d'Outremer. 
The  first  was  a  gallant  prince :  he  may  be  looked  on  as  the 
founder  of  the  greatness  of  Brussels,  where  he  fixed  his  resi- 
dence. After  several  years  of  tranquil  government,  the 
death  of  his  brother  called  him  to  the  throne  of  France ;  and 
from  that  time  he  bravely  contended  for  the  crown  of  his  an- 
cestors, against  the  usurpation  of  Hugues  Capet,  whom  he 
frequently  defeated  in  battle :  but  he  was  at  length  treach- 
erously surprised  and  put  to  death,  in  990.  Othon,  his  son, 
did  not  signalize  his  name  nor  justify  his  descent  by  any 
memorable  action;  and  in  him  ingloriously  perished  the 
name  of  the  Carlovingians. 

The  death  of  Othon  set  the  emperor  and  the  great  vassals 
once  more  in  opposition.  The  German  monarch  insisted  on 
naming  some  creature  of  his  own  to  the  dignity  of  duke ; 
but  Lambert  II.  count  of  Louvain,  and  Robert  count  of 
Namur,  having  married  the  sisters  of  Othon,  respectively 
claimed  the  right  of  inheritance  to  his  title.  Baldwin  of  the 
comely  beard,  count  of  Flanders,  joined  himself  to  their 
league,  hoping  to  extend  his  power  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Scheldt.  And,  in  fact,  the  emperor,  as  the  only  means  of 
disuniting  his  tw^o  powerful  vassals,  felt  himself  obliged  to 
cede  Valenciennes  and  the  islands  of  Zealand  to  Baldwin. 
The  imperial  power  thus  lost  ground  at  every  struggle.* 

Amid  the  confusion  of  these  events,  a  power  well  calcu- 
lated to  rival  or  even  supplant  that  of  the  fierce  counts  was 
grov/ing  up.     Many  circumstances  w^ere  combined  to  ex- 

*  Hist.  Crit.  Com.  Holl.  torn.  i.  p.  2. 


1013.  INFLUENCE    OF   THE    BISHOPS.  35 

tend  and  consolidate  the  episcopal  sway.  It  is  true  tliat  the 
bishops  of  Tournay  had  no  temporal  authority,  since  the  pe- 
riod of  their  city  being  rumed  by  the  Normans.  But  those 
of  Liege  and  Utrecht,  and  more  particularly  the  latter,  had 
accumulated  immense  possessions;  and  their  power  being 
inalienable,  they  had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  caprices  of 
sovereign  favor,  which  so  often  ruined  the  families  of  the 
aristocracy.  Those  bishops,  who  were  warriors  and  hunts- 
men rather  than  ecclesiastics,  possessed,  however,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  lance  and  the  sword,  the  terrible  artillery  of  ex- 
communication and  anathema,  which  they  thundered  forth 
without  mercy  against  every  laical  opponent:  and  when 
they  had,  by  conquest  or  treachery,  acquired  new  dominions 
and  additional  store  of  wealth,  they  could  not  portion  it 
among  their  children,  like  the  nobles,  but  it  devolved  to 
their  successors,  who  thus  became  more  and  more  powerful, 
and  gained  by  degrees  an  authority  almost  royal,  like  that 
of  the  ecclesiastical  elector  of  Germany. 

Whenever  the  emperor  warred  against  his  lay  vassals,  he 
was  sure  of  assistance  from  the  bishops,  because  they  were 
at  all  times  jealous  of  the  power  of  the  counts,  and  had  much 
less  to  gain  from  an  alliance  with  them  than  with  the  impe- 
rial despots  on  whose  donations  they  throve,  and  who  repaid 
their  efforts  by  new  privileges  and  extended  possessions.  So 
that  when  the  monarch,  at  length,  lost  the  superiority  in  his 
contests  with  the  counts,  little  was  wanting  to  make  his 
authority  be  merged  altogether  in  the  overgrown  power  of 
these  churchmen.  Nevertheless,  a  first  effort  of  the  bishop 
of  Liege,  to  seize  on  the  rights  of  the  count  of  Louvam, 
in  1013,  met  with  a  signal  defeat,  in  a  battle  which  took 
place  at  the  little  village  of  Stongarde.*  And  five  years 
later,  the  count  of  the  Friesland  marshes  (comes  Frisonum 
Morsatenorum)  gave  a  still  more  severe  lesson  to  the  bishop 
of  Utrecht.  This  last  merits  a  more  particular  mention, 
from  the  nature  of  the  quarrel  and  the  importance  of  its 
results. 

*  Ann.  Due.  Brab.  torn.  i. 


36  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1018. 

CHAP.   IV. 

1018—1384. 

FROM  THE  FORMATION  OF  HOLLAND  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  LOUIS  DE  MALE. 

The  district  in  which  Dordrecht  is  situated,  and  the 
grounds  in  its  environs  which  are  at  present  submerged, 
formed  in  those  times  an  island  just  raised  above  the  waters, 
and  which  was  called  Holland  or  Holtland,  (which  means 
wooded  land,  or,  according  to  some,  hollow  land.)  The  for- 
mation of  this  island,  or  rather  its  recovery  from  the  waters, 
being  only  of  recent  date,  the  right  to  its  possession  was 
more  disputable  than  that  of  long-established  countries.  All 
the  bishops  and  abbots  whose  states  bordered  the  Rhine  and 
the  Meuse  had,  being  equally  covetous  and  grasping,  and 
mutually  resolved  to  pounce  on  the  prey,  made  it  their  com- 
mon property.  A  certain  count  Thierry,  descended  from  the 
counts  of  Ghent,  governed  about  this  period  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  Friesland, — the  country  wliich  now  forms  the  prov* 
ince  of  Holland ;  and  with  much  difficulty  maintained  his 
power  against  the  Frisons,  by  v/hom  his  right  was  not  ac- 
knowledged. Beaten  out  of  his  own  territories  by  these  re- 
fractory insurgents,  he  sought  refuge  in  the  ecclesiastical 
island,  where  he  intrenched  himself,  and  founded  a  town 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  the  origin  of  Dordrecht. 

This  count  Thierry,  like  all  the  feudal  lords,  took  advan- 
tage of  his  position  to  establish  and  levy  certain  duties  on  all 
the  vessels  which  sailed  past  his  territory,  dispossessing  in 
the  mean  time  some  vassals  of  the  church,  and  beating,  as  we 
have  stated,  the  bishop  of  Utrecht  himself  Complaints  and 
appeals  without  number  were  laid  at  the  foot  of  the  imperial 
throne.  Godfrey  of  Eenham,  whom  the  emperor  had  created 
duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  was  commanded  to  call  the  whole 
country  to  arms.  The  bishop  of  Liege,  though  actually  dying, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  expedition,  to  revenge  his  bro- 
ther prelate,  and  punish  the  audacious  spoiler  of  the  church 
property.  But  Thierry  and  his  fierce  Frisons  took  Godfrey 
prisoner,  and  cut  his  army  in  pieces.  The  victor  had  the 
good  sense  and  moderation  to  spare  his  prisoners,  and  set 
them  free  without  ransom.  He  received  in  return  an  impe- 
rial amnesty ;  and  from  that  period  the  count  of  Holland  and 
his  posterity  formed  a  barrier,  against  which  the  ecclesiasti- 


1066.         COMMERCE  OF  FLANDERS.  37 

cal  power  and  the  remains  of  the  imperial  supremacy  con- 
tinually struggled,  to  be  only  shattered  in  each  new  assault.* 

As  the  partial  independence  of  the  great  vassals  became 
consolidated,  the  monarchs  were  proportionally  anxious  to 
prevent  its  perpetuation  in  the  same  families.  In  pursuance 
of  this  system,  Godfrey  of  Eenham  obtained  the  preference 
over  the  counts  Lambert  and  Robert ;  and  Frederick  of  Lux- 
embourg was  named  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  in  1046,  in- 
stead of  a  second  Godfrey  who  was  nephew  and  expectant 
heir  to  the  first.  But  this  Godfrey,  upheld  by  Baldwin  of 
Flanders,  forced  the  emperor  to  concede  to  him  the  inherit- 
ance of  the  dukedom.  Baldwin  secured  for  his  share  the 
country  of  Alost  and  Waas,  and  the  citadel  of  Ghent ;  and 
he  also  succeeded  in  obtaining  in  marriage  for  his  son  the 
countess  Richilde,  heiress  of  Hainault  and  Namur.  Thus 
was  Flanders  incessantly  gaining  new  aggrandizement,  while 
the  duchy  of  Lorraine  was  crumbling  away  on  every  side. 

In  the  year  1066  this  state  of  Flanders,  even  then  flourish- 
ing and  powerful,  furnished  assistance  both  in  men  and  ships 
to  William  the  Bastard  of  Normandy,  for  the  conquest  of 
England.  William  was  son-in-law  to  count  Baldwin,  and 
recompensed  the  assistance  of  his  wife's  father  by  an  annual 
payment  of  three  hundred  silver  marks.  It  was  Mathilda, 
the  Flemish  princess  and  wife  of  the  conqueror,  who  worked 
with  her  own  hands  the  celebrated  tapestry  of  Bayeux,  on 
which  is  embroidered  the  whole  history  of  the  conquest,  and 
which  is  the  most  curious  monument  of  the  state  of  the  arts 
in  that  age. 

Flanders  acquired  a  positive  and  considerable  superiority 
over  all  the  other  parts  of  the  Netherlands,  from  the  first  es- 
tablishment of  its  counts  or  earls.  The  descendants  of  Bald- 
win Bras'de-fer,  after  having  valiantly  repulsed  the  Normans 
towards  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  showed  themselves 
worthy  of  ruling  over  an  industrious  and  energetic  people. 
They  had  built  towns,  cut  down  and  cleared  away  forests, 
and  reclaimed  inundated  lands :  above  all  things,  they  had 
understood  and  guarded  against  the  danger  of  parcelling  out 
their  states  at  every  succeeding  generation ;  and  the  county 
of  Flanders  passed  entire  into  the  hands  of  the  first-born  of 
the  family.  The  stability  produced  by  this  state  of  things 
had  allowed  the  people  to  prosper.  The  Normans  now  visit- 
ed the  coasts,  not  as  enemies  but  as  merchants ;  and  Bruges 
became  the  mart  of  the  booty  acquired  by  these  bold  pirates 

*  John  Egmont,  an  old  chronicler,  says,  that  the  counts  of  Holland  were 
*  a  sword  in  the  flanks  of  the  bishops  of  Utrecht." 

D 


38  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1071. 

in  England  and  on  the  high  seas.  The  fisheries  had  begun 
to  acquire  an  importance  sufficient  to  establish  the  herring 
as  one  of  the  chief  aliments  of  the  population.  Maritime 
commerce  had  made  such  strides,  that  Spain  and  Portugal 
were  well  known  to  both  sailors  and  traders,  and  the  voyage 
from  Flanders  to  Lisbon  was  estimated  at  fifteen  days'  sail. 
Woollen  stuffs  formed  the  principal  wealth  of  the  country ; 
but  salt,  corn,  and  jewellery,  were  also  important  branches 
of  traffic ;  while  the  youth  of  Flanders  were  so  famous  for 
their  excellence  in  all  martial  pursuits,  that  foreign  sovereigns 
were  at  all  times  desirous  of  obtaining  bodies  of  troops  from 
this  nation. 

The  greatest  part  of  Flanders  was  attached,  as  has  been 
seen,  to  the  king  of  France,  and  not  to  Lorraine ;  but  the  de- 
pendence was  little  more  than  nominal.  In  1071  the  king 
of  France  attempted  to  exercise  his  authority  over  the  coun- 
try, by  naming  to  the  government  the  same  countess  Richilde 
who  had  received  Hainault  and  Namur  for  her  dower,  and 
who  was  left  a  widow,  with  sons  still  in  their  minority.  The 
people  assembled  in  the  principal  towns,  and  protested  against 
this  intervention  of  the  French  monarch.  But  we  must  re- 
mark, that  it  was  only  the  population  of  the  low  lands  (whose 
sturdy  ancestors  had  ever  resisted  foreign  domination)  that 
now  took  part  in  this  opposition.*  The  vassals  which  the 
counts  of  Flanders  possessed  in  the  Gallic  provinces  (the  high 
grounds,)  and  in  general  all  the  nobility,  pronounced  strongly 
for  submission  to  France ;  for  the  principles  of  political  free- 
dom had  not  yet  been  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants 
of  those  parts  of  the  country.  But  the  lowlanders  joined  to- 
gether under  Robert,  surnamed  the  Frison,  brother  of  the 
deceased  count ;  and  they  so  completely  defeated  the  French, 
the  nobles  and  their  unworthy  associates  of  the  high  ground, 
that  they  despoiled  the  usurping  countess  Richilde  of  even 
her  hereditary  possessions.  In  this  war  perished  the  cele- 
brated Norman  William  Fitz-Osborn,  who  had  flown  to  the 
succor  of  the  defeated  countess,  of  whom  he  was  enamoured. 

Robert  the  Frison,  not  satisfied  with  having  beaten  the 
king  of  France  and  the  bishop  of  Liege,  restored  in  1076  the 
grandson  of  Thierry  of  Holland  in  the  possessions  which  had 
been  forced  from  him  by  the  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  in  the 
name  of  the  emperor  and  the  bishop  of  Utrecht :  so  that  it 
was  this  valiant  chieftain,  who,  above  all  others,  is  entitled 
to  the  praise  of  having  successfully  opposed  the  system  of 
foreign  domination  on  all  the  principal  points  of  the  country- 

*  Van  Praet,  Origine  des  Communes  de  Flandres. 


1086.  STATE    OF   THE    FRISONS.  39 

Four  years  later,  Othon  of  Nassau  was  the*  first  to  unite  in 
one  county  the  various  cantons  of  Guelders.  Finally,  in 
1086,  Henry  of  Lou  vain,  the  direct  descendant  of  Lambert, 
joined  to  his  title  that  of  count  of  Brabant ;  and  from  this  pe- 
riod the  country  was  partitioned  pretty  nearly  as  it  was  des- 
tined to  remain  for  several  centuries. 

In  the  midst  of  this  gradual  organization  of  the  various 
counties,  history  for  some  time  loses  sight  of  those  Frisons, 
the  maritime  people  of  the  north,  who  took  little  part  in  the 
civil  wars  of  two  centuries.  But  still  there  was  no  portion 
of  Europe  which  at  that  time  offered  a  finer  picture  of  social 
improvement  than  these  damp  and  unhealthy  coasts.  The 
name  of  Frisons  extended  from  the  Weser  to  the  westward 
of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  but  not  quite  to  the  Rhine ;  and  it  be- 
came usual  to  consider  no  longer  as  Frisons  the  subjects  of 
the  counts  of  Holland,  whom  we  may  now  begin  to  distinguish 
as  Hollanders  or  Dutch.  The  Frison  race  alone  refused  to 
recognize  the  sovereign  counts.  They  boasted  of  being  self- 
governed;  owning  no  allegiance  but  to  the  emperor,  and 
regarding  the  counts  of  his  nomination  as  so  many  officers 
charged  to  require  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  country,  but 
themselves  obliged  in  all  things  to  respect  them.  But  the 
counts  of  Holland,  the  bishops  of.  Utrecht,  and  several  Ger- 
man lords,  dignified  from  time  to  time  with  the  title  of  counts 
of  Friesland,  insisted  that  it  carried  with  it  a  personal  au- 
thority superior  to  that  of  the  sovereign  they  represented. 
The  descendants  of  the  count  Thierry,  a  race  of  men  remark- 
ably warlike,  were  the  most  violent  in  this  assumption  of 
power.  Defeat  after  defeat,  however,  punished  their  obsti- 
nacy ;  and  numbers  of  those  princes  met  death  on  the  ])ikes 
of  their  Frison  opponents.  The  latter  had  no  regular  lead- 
ers ;  but  at  the  approach  of  the  enemy  the  inhabitants  of  each 
canton  flew  to  arms,  like  the  members  of  a  single  family ; 
and  all  the  feudal  forces  brought  against  them  failed  to  sub- 
due this  popular  militia. 

The  frequent  result  of  these  collisions  was  the  refusal  of 
tlie  Frisons  to  recognize  any  authority  whatever  but  that  of 
the  national  judges.  Each  canton  was  governed  according 
to  its  own  laws.  If  a  difficulty  arose,  the  deputies  of  the  na- 
tion met  together  on  the  borders  of  the  Ems,  in  a  place  called 
"  the  Trees  of  Upstal"  ( Upstall-boomen^)  where  three  old 
oaks  stood  in  the  middle  of  an  immense  plain.  In  this  primi- 
tive council-place  chieftains  were  chosen,  who,  on  swearing 
to  maintain  the  laws  and  oppose  the  common  enemy,  were 
invested  with  a  limited  and  temporary  authority. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Friesland   possessed  any  large 


40  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1086. 

towns,  with  the  exception  of  Staveren.  In  this  respect  the 
Prisons  resembled  those  ancient  Germans  who  had  a  horror 
of  shutting  themselves  up  within  walls.*  They  lived  in  a 
way  completely  patriarchal ;  dwelling  in  isolated  cabins,  and 
with  habits  of  the  utmost  frugality.  We  read  in  one  of  their 
old  histories,  that  a  whole  convent  of  Benedictines  was  terri- 
fied at  the  voracity  of  a  German  sculptor  who  was  repairing 
their  chapel.  They  implored  him  to  look  elsewhere  for  his 
food ;  for  that  he  and  his  sons  consumed  enough  to  exhaust 
the  whole  stock  of  the  monastery.! 

In  no  part  of  Europe  was  the  good  sense  of  the  people  so 
effectively  opposed  to  the  unreasonable  practices  of  Catholic- 
ism in  those  days.  The  Frisons  successfully  resisted  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes ;  and  as  a  punishment  (if  the  monks  are  to  be 
believed)  the  sea  inflicted  upon  them  repeated  inundations. 
They  forced  their  priests  to  marry,  saying  that  the  man  who 
had  no  wife  necessarily  sought  for  the  wife  of  another.  They 
acknowledged  no  ecclesiastical  decree,  if  secular  judges,  dou- 
ble the  number  of  the  priests,  did  not  bear  a  part  in  it.  J  Thus 
the  spirit  of  liberty  burst  forth  in  all  their  proceedings,  and 
they  were  justified  in  calling  themselves  Vri-  Vricsen,  Free- 
Frisons. 

No  nation  is  more  interested  than  England  in  the  exami- 
nation of  all  that  concerns  this  remote  corner  of  Europe,  so 
resolute  in  its  opposition  to  both  civil  and  religious  tyranny ; 
for  it  was  there  that  those  Saxon  institutions  and  principles 
were  first  developed  without  constraint,  while  the  time  of 
their  establishment  in  England  was  still  distant.  Restrained 
by  our  narrow  limits,  we  can  merely  indicate  this  curious 
state  of  things ;  nor  may  we  enter  on  many  mysteries  of  so- 
cial government  which  the  most  learned  find  a  difficulty  in 
solving.  What  were  the  rights  of  the  nobles  in  their  con- 
nexion with  these  freemen  1  What  ties  of  reciprocal  inter- 
est bound  the  different  cantons  to  each  other  1  What  were 
the  privileges  of  the  towns'? — These  are  the  minute  but  im- 
portant points  of  detail  which  are  overshadowed  by  the  grand 
and  imposing  figure  of  the  national  independence.  But  in 
fact,  the  emperors  themselves,  in  these  distant  times,  had 
little  knowledge  of  this  province,  and  spoke  of  it  vaguely,  and 
as  it  were  at  random,  in  their  diplomas,  the  chief  monuments 
of  the  history  of  the  middle  ages.  The  counts  of  Holland  and 
the  apostolic  nuncios  addressed  their  acts  and  rescripts  indis- 
criminately to  the  nobles,  clergy,  magistrates,  judges,  con- 

*  Gibbon,  ii.  360.  f  Chron.  Menconis  Abb.  in  Werum. 

X  Oude  Vriesche  Wetten,  Decl.  1. 


1086.  THEIR    POLITICAL    INSTITUTIONS.  41 

suls,  or  commons  of  Friesland.  Sometimes  appeared  in  those 
documents  the  vague  and  imposing  title  of  "  the  great  Fri- 
son,"  applied  to  some  popular  leader.  All  this  confusion  tends 
to  prove,  on  the  authority  of  the  historians  of  the  epoch,  and 
the  charters  so  carefully  collected  by  the  learned,*  that  this 
question,  now  so  impossible  to  solve,  wqls  even  then  not  right- 
ly understood, — what  were  really  those  fierce  and  redoubtable 
Prisons  in  their  popular  and  political  relations  ]  The  fact  is, 
that  liberty  was  a  matter  so  difficult  to  be  comprehended  by 
the  writers  of  those  times,  that  Froissart  gave  as  his  opinion, 
about  the  year  1380,  that  the  Frisons  were  a  most  unreason- 
able race,  for  not  recognizing  the  authority  and  power  of  the 
great  lords. 

The  eleventh  century  had  been  for  the  Netherlands  (with 
the  exception  of  Friesland  and  Flanders)  an  epoch  of  organic 
zation ;  and  had  nearly  fixed  the  political  existence  of  the 
provinces,  which  were  so  long  confounded  in  the  vast  posses- 
sions of  the  empire.  It  is  therefore  important  to  ascertain 
under  what  influence  and  on  what  basis  these  provinces  be- 
came consolidated  at  that  period.  Holland  and  Zealand, 
animated  by  the  spirit  which  we  may  fairly  distinguish  under 
the  mingled  title  of  Saxon  and  maritime,  countries  scarcely 
accessible,  and  with  a  vigorous  population,  possessed,  in  the 
descendants  of  Thierry  L,  a  race  of  national  chieftains  who 
did  not  attempt  despotic  rule  over  so  unconquerable  a  peo- 
ple. In  Brabant,  the  maritime  towns  of  Berg-op-Zoom  and 
Antwerp  formed,  in  the  Flemish  style,  so  many  republics, 
small  but  not  insignificant ;  while  the  southern  parts  of  the 
province  were  under  the  sway  of  a  nobility  who  crushed, 
trampled  on,  or  sold  their  vassals  at  their  pleasure  or  caprice. 
The  bishopric  of  Liege  offered  also  the  same  contrast ;  the 
domains  of  the  nobility  being  governed  with  the  utmost 
harshness,  while  those  prince-prelates  lavished  on  their  ple- 
beian vassals  privileges  which  might  have  been  supposed 
the  fruits  of  generosity,  were  it  not  clear  that  the  object  was 
to  create  an  opposition  in  the  lower  orders  against  the  turbu- 
lent aristocracy,  whom  they  found  it  impossible  to  manage 
single-handed.  .  The  wars  of  these  bishops  against  the  petty 
nobles,  who  made  their  castles  so  many  receptacles  of  rob- 
bers and  plunder,  were  thus  the  foundation  of  public  liberty. 
And  it  appears  tolerably  certain  that  the  Paladins  of  Ariosto 
were  in  reality  nothing  more  than  those  brigand  chieftains  of 
tlie  Ardennes,  whose  ruined  residences  preserve  to  this  day 
the  names  which  the  poet  borrowed  from  the  old  romance 

*  F.  Van  Micris,  Groot  CharterI)oek  van  IfoU.  Zccl.  en  Vriesland. 

D2 


42  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1200. 

writers.  But  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting 
the  provinces  already  mentioned,  no  form  of  government  ex- 
isted, but  that  fierce  feudality  which  reduced  the  people  into 
serfs,  and  turned  the  social  state  of  man  into  a  cheerless 
waste  of  bondage. 

It  was  then  that  the  crusades,  with  wild  and  stirring  fa- 
naticism, agitated,  in  the  common  impulse  given  to  all  Eu- 
rope, even  those  little  states  which  seemed  to  slumber  in 
their  isolated  independence.  Nowhere  did  the  voice  of  Peter 
the  Hermit  find  a  more  sympathizing  echo  than  in  these 
lands,  still  desolated  by  so  many  intestine  struggles.  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  took  the  lead  in  this 
chivalric  and  religious  frenzy.  With  him  set  out  the  counts 
of  Hainault  and  Flanders ;  the  latter  of  whom  received  from 
the  English  crusaders  the  honorable  appellation  of  Fitz  St. 
George.  But  although  the  valor  of  all  these  princes  was 
conspicuous,  from  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  in  1098,  until  that  of  the  Latin  em- 
pire of  Constantinople  by  Baldwin  of  Flanders  in  1203,  still 
the  simple  gentlemen  and  peasants  of  Friesland  did  not  less 
distinguish  themselves.  They  were,  on  all  occasions,  the 
first  to  mount  the  breach  or  lead  the  charge  ;  and  the  pope's 
nuncio  found  himself  forced  to  prohibit  the  very  women  of 
Friesland  from  embarking  for  the  Holy  Land — so  anxious 
were  they  to  share  the  perils  and  glory  of  their  husbands  and 
brothers  in  combating  the  Saracens. 

The  outlet  given  by  the  crusaders  to  the  over-boiling 
ardor  of  these  warlike  countries,  was  a  source  of  infinite  ad- 
vantage to  their  internal  economy :  under  the  rapid  progress 
of  civilization,  the  population  increased  and  the  fields  were 
cultivated.  The  nobility,  reduced  to  moderation  by  the  en- 
feebling consequences  of  extensive  foreign  wars,  became  com- 
paratively impotent  in  their  attempted  efforts  against  domes- 
tic freedom.  Those  of  Flanders  and  Brabant,  also,  were 
almost  decimated  in  the  terrible  battle  of  Bouvines,  fought 
between  the  emperor  Othon  and  Philip  Augustus  king  of 
France.  On  no  occasion,  however,  had  this  reduced  but 
not  degenerate  nobility  shown  more  heroic  valor.  The 
Flemish  Imights,  disdaining  to  mount  their  horses  or  form 
their  ranks  for  the  repulse  of  the  French  cavalry,  composed 
of  common  persons,  contemptuously  received  their  shock  on 
foot  and  in  the  disorder  of  individual  resistance.  The  brave 
Buridan  of  Ypres  led  his  comrades  to  the  fight,  with  the 
chivalric  war-cry,  "  Let  each  now  think  of  her  he  loves !" 
But  the  issue  of  this  battle  was  ruinous  to  tlie  Belgians,  in 
consequence  of  tlie  bad  generalship  of  the  emperor,  who  had 


1200.  PROGRESS  OF  FREEDOM.  43 

divided  his  army  into  small  portions,  which  were  defeated  in 
detail. 

While  the  nobility  thus  declined,  the  towns  began  rapidly 
to  develop  the  elements  of  popular  force.  In  1120,  a  Flem- 
ish knight  who  might  descend  so  far  as  to  marry  a  woman 
of  the  plebeian  ranks  incurred  the  penalty  of  degradation  and 
servitude.*  In  1220,  scarcely  a  serf  was  to  be  found  in  all 
Flanders.f  In  1300,  the  chiefs  of  the  gilden,  or  trades,  were 
more  powerful  than  the  nobles.  These  dates  and  these  facts 
must  suffice  to  mark  the  epoch  at  which  the  great  mass  of 
the  nation  arose  from  the  wretchedness  in  which  it  was 
plunged  by  the  Norman  invasion,  and  acquired  sufficient 
strength  and  freedom  to  form  a  real  political  force.  But  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  same  results  took  place  in  all  the  coun- 
ties or  dukedoms  of  the  Lowlands  precisely  at  the  same  pe- 
riod. In  fact,  if  we  start  from  the  year  1200  on  this  inter- 
esting inquiry,  we  shall  see  the  commons  attacking,  in  the 
first  place  the  petty  feudal  lords,  and  next  tlie  counts  and  the 
dukes  themselves,  as  often  as  justice  was  denied  them.  In 
1257,  the  peasants  of  Holland  and  the  burghers  of  Utrecht 
proclaimed  freedom  and  equality,  drove  out  the  bishop  and 
the  nobles,  and  began  a  memorable  struggle  which  lasted  full 
two  hundred  years.  In  1260,  the  towns-people  of  Flanders 
appealed  to  the  king  of  France  against  the  decrees  of  their 
count,  who  ended  the  quarrel  by  the  loss  of  his  county.  In 
1303,  Mechlin  and  Louvain,  the  chief  towns  of  Brabant,  ex- 
pelled the  patrician  families.  A  coincidence  like  this  cannot 
be  attributed  to  trifling  or  partial  causes,  such  as  the  miscon- 
duct of  a  single  count,  or  other  local  evil ;  but  to  a  great 
general  movement  in  the  popular  mind,  the  progress  of  agri- 
culture and  industry  in  the  whole  country,  superinducing  an 
increase  of  wealth  and  intelligence,  which,  when  unrestrain- 
ed by  the  influence  of  a  corrupt  government,  must  naturally 
lead  to  the  liberty  and  the  happiness  of  a  people. 

The  weaving  of  woollen  and  linen  cloths  was  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  this  growing  prosperity.  A  prodigious  quan- 
tity of  cloth  and  linen  was  manufactured  in  all  parts  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  maritime  prosperity  acquired  an  equal 
increase  by  the  carrying  trade,  both  in  imports  and  exports. 
Whole  fleets  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  merchant-ships  repaired 
regularly  to  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Languedoc.  Flanders 
was  already  become  the  great  market  for  England  and  all 

*  Vita  Caroli  boni. 

t  The  countess  Jane  had  enfranchised  all  those  belonging  to  her  as  early 
as  122->.— Frcrfii  Siff.  Com.  Fl. 


44  HISTORY    or   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1200 

the  north  of  Europe.  The  great  increase  of  population  forced 
all  parts  of  the  country  into  cultivation ;  so  much  so,  that 
lands  were  in  those  times  sold  at  a  high  price,  which  are  to- 
day left  waste  from  imputed  sterility. 

Legislation  naturally  followed  the  movements  of  those 
positive  and  material  interests.  The  earliest  of  the  towns, 
after  the  invasion  of  the  Normans,  were  in  some  degree  but 
places  of  refuge.  It  was  soon,  however,  established  that  the 
regular  inhabitants  of  these  bulwarks  of  the  country  should 
not  be  subjected  to  any  servitude  beyond  their  care  and  de- 
fence ;  but  the  citizen  who  might  absent  himself  for  a  longer 
period  than  forty  days  was  considered  a  deserter  and  de- 
prived of  his  rights.  It  was  about  the  year  1100  that  the 
commons  began  to  possess  the  privilege  of  regulating  their 
internal  affairs :  they  appointed  their  judges  and  magistrates, 
and  attached  to  their  authority  the  old  custom  of  ordering  all 
the  citizens  to  assemble  or  march  when  the  summons  of  the 
feudal  lord  sounded  the  signal  for  their  assemblage  or  ser- 
vice. By  this  means  each  municipal  magistracy  had  the 
disposal  of  a  force  far  superior  to  those  of  the  nobles,  for  the 
population  of  the  towns  exceeded  both  in  number  and  disci- 
pline the  vassals  of  the  seigniorial  lands.  And  these  train- 
ed bands  of  the  towns  made  war  in  a  way  very  different  from 
that  hitherto  practised;  for  the  chivalry  of  the  country, 
making  the  trade  of  arms  a  profession  for  life,  the  feuds  of 
the  chieftains  produced  hereditary  struggles,  almost  always 
slow,  and  mutually  disastrous.  But  the  townsmen,  forced 
to  tear  themselves  from  every  association  of  home  and  its 
manifold  endearments,  advanced  boldly  to  the  object  of  the 
contest ;  never  shrinking  from  the  dangers  of  war,  from  fear 
of  that  still  greater  to  be  found  in  a  prolonged  struggle.  It 
is  thus  that  it  may  be  remarked,  during  the  memorable  con- 
flicts of  the  thirteenth  century,  that  when  even  the  bravest 
of  the  knights  advised  their  counts  or  dukes  to  grant  or  de- 
mand a  truce,  the  citizen  militia  never  knew  but  one  cry — 
"  To  the  charge  !"* 

Evidence  was  soon  given  of  the  importance  of  this  new 
nation,  when  it  became  forced  to  take  up  arms  against  ene- 
mies still  more  redoubtable  than  the  counts.  In  1301,  the 
Flemings,  who  had  abandoned  their  own  sovereign  to  attach 
themselves  to  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  began  to  re- 
pent of  their  newly-formed  allegiance,  and  to  be  weary  of  the 
master  they  had  chosen.  Two  citizens  of  Bruges,  Peter  de 
Koning,  a  draper,  and  John  Breydel,  a  butcher,  put  them- 

*  Butkens,  Trophies  de  Brabant. 


1323.  REVOLT    OF    THE    TOWNS.  45 

selves  at  the  head  of  their  fellow-townsmen,  and  completely 
dislodged  the  French  troops  who  garrisoned  it.  The  follow- 
ing year,  the  militia  of  Bruges  and  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood sustained  alone,  at  the  battle  of  Courtrai,  the  shock  of 
one  of  the  finest  armies  that  France  ever  sent  into  the  field. 
Victory  soon  declared  for  the  gallant  men  of  Bruges ;  up- 
wards of  3000  of  the  French  chivalry,  besides  common  sol- 
diers, were  left  dead  on  the  field.  In  1304,  after  a  long  con- 
tested battle,  the  Flemings  forced  the  king  of  France  to  re- 
lease their  count,  whom  he  had  held  prisoner.  "  I  believe  it 
rains  Flemings !"  said  Philip,  astonished  to  see  them  crowd 
on  him  from  all  sides  of  the  field.  But  this  multitude  of  war- 
riors, always  ready  to  meet  the  foe,  were  provided  for  the 
most  part  by  the  towns.  In  the  seigniorial  system  a  village 
hardly  furnished  more  than  four  or  five  men,  and  these  only 
on  important  occasions ;  but  in  that  of  the  towns,  every  citi- 
zen was  enrolled  a  soldier  to  defend  the  country  at  all  times. 
The  same  system  established  in  Brabant  forced  the  duke 
of  that  province  to  sanction  and  guaranty  the  popular  privi- 
leges, and  the  superiority  of  the  people  over  the  nobility. 
Such  was  the  result  of  the  famous  contract  concluded  in 
1312  at  Cortenbergh,  by  which  the  duke  created  a  legisla- 
tive and  judicial  assembly  to  meet  every  twenty-one  days  for 
the  provincial  business ;  and  to  consist  of  fourteen  deputies, 
of  whom  only  four  were  to  be  nobles,  and  ten  were  chosen 
from  the  people.  The  duke  was  bound  by  this  act  to  hold 
himself  in  obedience  to  the  legislative  decisions  of  the  coun- 
cil, and  renounced  all  right  of  levying  arbitrary  taxes  or 
duties  on  the  state.*  Thus  were  the  local  privileges  of  the 
people  by  degrees  secured  and  ratified;  but  the  various 
towns,  making  common  cause  for  general  liberty,  became 
strictly  united  together,  and  progressively  extended  their 
influence  and  power.  The  confederation  between  Flanders 
and  Brabant  was  soon  consolidated.  The  burghers  of  Bruges, 
who  had  taken  the  lead  in  the  grand  national  union,  and  had 
been  the  foremost  to  expel  the  foreign  force,  took  umbrage 
in  1323  at  an  arbitrary  measure  of  their  count,  Louis  (called 
of  Cressy  by  posthumous  nomination,  from  his  having  been 
killed  at  that  celebrated  fight),  by  which  he  ceded  to  the 
count  of  Namur,  his  great-uncle,  the  port  of  Ecluse,  and 
authorized  him  to  levy  duties  there  in  the  style  of  the  feudal 
lords  of  the  high  country.  It  was  but  the  affair  of  a  day  to 
the  intrepid  citizens  to  attack  the  fortress  of  Ecluse,  cavry  it 
by  assault,  and  take  prisoner  the  old  count  of  Namur.     They 

*  Dinterus,  MSB.  Bibl.  Bruxell. 


46  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1340. 

destroyed  in  a  short  time  almost  all  the  strong  castles  of  the 
nobles  throughout  the  province ;  and  having  been  joined  by 
all  the  towns  of  western  Flanders,  they  finally  made  prisoners 
count  Louis  himself,  with  almost  the  whole  of  the  nobility, 
who  had  taken  refuge  with  him  in  the  town  of  Courtrai. 
But  Ghent,  actuated  by  the  jealousy  which  at  all  times  ex- 
isted between  it  and  Bruges,  stood  aloof  at  this  crisis.  The 
latter  town  was  obliged  to  come  to  a  compromise  with  the 
count,  who  soon  afterwards,  on  a  new  quarrel  breaking  out, 
and  supported  by  the  king  of  France,  almost  annihilated  his 
sturdy  opponents  at  the  battle  of  Cassel,  where  the  Flemish 
infantry,  commanded  by  Nicholas  Zannekin  and  others,  were 
literally  cut  to  pieces  by  the  French  knights  and  men-at- 
arms. 

This  check  proved  the  absolute  necessity  of  union  among 
the  rival  cities.  Ten  years  after  the  battle  of  Cassel, 
Ghent  set  the  example  of  general  opposition ;  this  example 
was  promptly  followed,  and  the  chief  towns  flew  to  arms. 
The  celebrated  James  d'Artaveldt,  commonly  called  the 
brewer  of  Ghent,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  this  formidable 
insurrection.  He  was  a  man  of  a  distinguished  family,  who 
had  himself  enrolled  among  the  guild  of  brewers,  to  entitle 
him  to  occupy  a  place  in  the  corporation  of  Ghent,  which  he 
soon  succeeded  in  managing  and  leading  at  his  pleasure. 
The  tyranny  of  the  count,  and  the  French  party  which  sup- 
ported him,  became  so  intolerable  to  Artaveldt,  that  he 
resolved  to  assail  them  at  all  hazards,  unappalled  by  the  fate 
of  his  father-in-law,  Sohier  de  Courtrai,  who  lost  his  head  for 
a  similar  attempt,  and  notwithstanding  the  hitherto  devoted 
fidelity  of  his  native  city  to  the  count.  One  only  object 
seemed  insurmountable.  The  Flemings  had  sworn  allegiance 
to  the  crown  of  France ;  and  they  revolted  at  the  idea  of  per- 
jury, even  from  an  extorted  oath.  But  to  overcome  their 
scruples,  Artaveldt  proposed  to  acknowledge  the  claim  of 
Edward  III.  of  England  to  the  French  crown.*  The  Flemings 
readily  acceded  to  this  arrangement ;  quickly  overwhelmed 
count  Louis  of  Cressy  and  his  French  partisans;  and  then 
joined,  with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  the  English  monarch, 
who  had  landed  at  Antwerp.  These  numerous  auxiliaries 
rendered  Edward's  army  irresistible;  and  soon  afterwards 
the  French  and  English  fleets,  both  of  formidable  power,  but 
the  latter  of  inferior  force,  met  near  Sluys,  and  engaged  in  a 
battle  meant  to  be  decisive  of  tlie  war :  victory  remained 
doubtful  during  an  entire  day  of  fighting,  until  a  Flemish 

*  Villaret,  Hist,  de  France,  t.  viii. 


1350.  JAMES  d'artaveldt*  47 

squadron  hastening  to  the  aid  of  the  English,  fixed  the  fate 
of  the  combat  by  the  utter  defeat  of  the  enemy. 

A  truce  between  the  two  kings  did  not  deprive  Artaveldt 
of  his  well-earned  authority.  He  was  invested  with  the  title 
of  ru ward,  or  conservator  of  the  peace,  of  Flanders,  and 
governed  the  whole  province  with  almost  sovereign  sway.  It 
was  said  that  king  Edward  used  familiarly  to  call  him  "  his 
dear  gossip ;"  and  it  is  certain  that  there  was  not  a  feudal 
lord  of  the  time  whose  power  was  not  eclipsed  by  this  leader 
of  the  people.  One  of  the  principal  motives  which  cemented 
the  attachment  of  the  Flemings  to  Artaveldt,  was  the  advan- 
tage obtained  through  his  influence  with  Edward  for  facili- 
tating the  trade  with  England,  whence  they  procured  the 
chief  supply  of  wool  for  their  manufactories.  Edward  prom- 
ised them  70,000  sacks  as  the  reward  of  their  alliance.  But 
though  greatly  influenced  by  the  stimulus  of  general  interest, 
the  Flemings  loved  their  domestic  liberty  better  than  Eng- 
lish wool ;  and  when  they  found  that  their  ruward  degen- 
erated from  a  firm  patriot  into  the  partisan  of  a  foreign 
prince,  they  became  disgusted  with  him  altogether ;  and  he 
perished  in  1345,  in  a  tumult  raised  against  him  by  those  by 
whom  he  had  been  so  lately  idolized.  The  Flemings  held 
firm,  nevertheless,  in  their  alliance  with  England,  only 
regulating  the  connexion  by  a  steady  principle  of  national 
independence.* 

Edward  knew  well  how  to  conciliate  and  manage  these 
faithful  and  important  auxiliaries  during  all  his  continental 
wars.  A  Flemish  army  covered  the  siege  of  Calais  in  1348; 
and,  under  the  command  of  Giles  de  Rypergherste,  a  mere 
weaver  of  Ghent,  they  beat  the  dauphin  of  France  in  a 
pitched  battle.  But  Calais  once  taken,  and  a  truce  concluded, 
the  English  king  abandoned  his  allies.  These,  left  wholly  to 
their  own  resources,  forced  the  French  and  the  heir  of  their 
count,  young  Louis  de  Male,  to  recognize  their  right  to  self- 
government  according  to  their  ancient  privileges,  and  of  not 
being  forced  to  give  aid  to  France  in  any  war  against  Eng- 
land. Flanders  may  therefore  be  pronounced  as  forming,  at 
this  epoch,  both  in  right  and  fact,  a  truly  independent  prin- 
cipality.f 

But  such  struggles  as  these  left  a  deep  and  immovable 
sentiment  of  hatred  in  the  minds  of  the  vanquished.  Louis 
de  Male  longed  for  the  re-establishment  and  extension  of  his 
authority ;  and  had  the  art  to  gain  over  to  his  views  not  only 
all  the  nobles,  but  many  of  the   most  influential  guilds  or 

*  Meverus,  Ann.  Fl.  t  Meyerus. 


48  HISTORY    OF   TlIE   NETHERLANDS.  1384. 

trades.  Ghent,  which  long  resisted  his  attempts,  was  at 
length  reduced  by  famine ;  and  the  count  projected  the  ruin, 
or  at  least  the  total  subjection,  of  this  turbulent  town.  A  son 
of  Artaveldt  started  forth  at  this  juncture,  when  the  popular 
cause  seemed  lost ;  and  joining  with  his  fellow-citizens  John 
Lyons  and  Peter  du  Bois,  he  led  7000  resolute  burghers 
against  40,000  feudal  vassals.  He  completely  defeated  the 
count,  and  took  the  town  of  Bruges,  where  Louis  de  Male 
only  obtained  safety  by  hiding  himself  under  the  bed  of  an 
old  woman  who  gave  him  shelter.*  Thus  once  more  feudality 
was  defeated  in  a  fresh  struggle  with  civic  freedom. 

The  consequences  of  this  event  were  immense.  They 
reached  to  the  very  heart  of  France,  where  the  people  bore 
in  great  discontent  the  feudal  yoke ;  and  Froissart  declares, 
that  the  success  of  the  people  of  Ghent  had  nearly  over- 
thrown the  superiority  of  the  nobility  over  the  people  in 
France.  But  the  king,  Charles  VI.,  excited  by  his  uncle, 
Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  took  arms  in  support  of 
the  defeated  count,  and  marched  with  a  powerful  army 
against  the  rebellious  burghers.  Though  defeated  in  four 
successive  combats,  in  the  latter  of  which,  that  of  Roosbeke, 
Artaveldt  was  killed,  the  Flemings  would  not  submit  to  their 
imperious  count,  who  used  every  persuasion  with  Charles  to 
continue  his  assistance  for  the  punishment  of  these  refractory 
subjects.!  But  the  duke  of  Burgundy  was  aware  that  a  too 
great  perseverance  would  end,  either  in  driving  the  people  to 
despair  and  the  possible  defeat  of  the  French,  or  the  entire 
conquest  of  the  country  and  its  junction  to  the  crown  of 
France.  He,  being  son-in-law  to  Louis  de  Male,  and  conse- 
quently aspiring  to  the  inheritance  of  Flanders,  saw  with  a 
keen  glance  the  advantage  of  a  present  compromise.  On  the 
death  of  Louis,  who  is  stated  to  have  been  murdered  by. 
Philip's  brother,  the  duke  of  Berri,  he  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  rebel  burghers,  and  entered  at  once  upon  the 
sovereignty  of  the  country.  J 

*  Oudegherst.Chron.  van  Vlaenderen. 

t  De  Barante,  Hist,  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne. 

X  Meyer  de  Barante,  &c.  1384. 


1384.  nilLIP   THE   BOLD.  49 

CHAP.  V. 
1384—1506. 

FROM   THE   SUCCESSION    OF   PHILIP    THE    BOLD   TO   THE    COUNTY    OF 
FLANDERS,   TO    THE    DEATH    OF    PHILIP    THE    FAIR, 

Thus  the  house  of  Burgundy,  which  soon  after  became  so 
formidable  and  celebrated,  obtained  this  vast  accession  to  its 
power.  The  various  changes  which  had  taken  place  in  the 
neighboring  provinces  during  the  continuance  of  these  civil 
wars  had  altered  the  state  of  Flanders  altogether.  John 
d'Avesnes  count  of  Hainault  having  also  succeeded  in  1299 
to  the  county  of  Holland,  the  two  provinces,  theugh  separated 
by  Flanders  and  Brabant,  remained  from  that  time  under  the 
government  of  the  same  chief,  who  soon  became  more  power- 
ful than  the  bishops  of  Utrecht,  or  even  than  their  formidable 
rivals  the  Frisons. 

During  the  wars  which  desolated  these  opposing  territories, 
in  consequence  of  the  perpetual  conflicts  for  superiority,  the 
power  of  the  various  towns  insensibly  became  at  least  as 
great  as  that  of  the  nobles  to  whom  they  were  constantly 
opposed.  The  commercial  interests  of  Holland,  also,  were 
considerably  advanced  by  the  influx  of  Flemish  merchants 
forced  to  seek  refuge  there  from  the  convulsions  which 
agitated  their  province.  Every  day  confirmed  and  increased 
the  privileges  of  the  people  of  Brabant ;  while  at  Liege  the 
inhabitants  gradually  began  to  gain  the  upper  hand,  and  to 
shake  oflT  the  former  subjection  to  their  sovereign  bishops. 

Although  Philip  of  Burgundy  became  count  of  Flanders, 
by  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  in  the  year  1384,  it  was  not 
till  the  following  year  that  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the 
people  of  Ghent,  and  entered  into  quiet  possession  of  the 
province.  In  the  same  year  the  duchess  of  Brabant,  the 
last  descendant  of  the  duke  of  that  province,  died,  leaving  no 
nearer  relative  than  the  duchess  of  Burgundy ;  so  that  Philip 
obtained  in  right  of  his  wife  this  new  and  important  accession 
to  his  dominions.  But  the  consequent  increase  of  the  sove- 
reign's power  was  not,  as  is  often  the  case,  injurious  to  the 
liberties  or  happiness  of  the  people.  Philip  continued  to 
govern  in  the  interest  of  the  country,  which  he  had  the  good 
sense  to  consider  as  identified  with  his  own.  He  augmented 
the  privileges  of  the  towns,  and  negotiated  for  the  return  into 
Flanders  of  those   merchants  who  had  emigrated  to  Ger- 

E 


50  IIISTOllY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  13S5. 

many  and  Holland  during  the  continuance  of  the  civil  wars.* 
He  thus  by  degrees  accustomed  his  new  subjects,  so  proud  of 
their  rights,  to  submit  to  his  authority;  and  his  peaceable 
reign  was  only  disturbed  by  the  fatal  issue  of  the  expedition 
of  his  son,  John  the  Fearless,  count  of  Nevers,  against  the 
Turks.  This  young  prince,  filled  with  ambition  and  temerity, 
was  offered  the  command  of  the  force  sent  by  Charles  HI.  of 
France  to  the  assistance  of  Sigismund  of  Hungary  in  his 
war  against  Bajazet.  Followed  by  a  numerous  body  of  nobles, 
he  entered  on  the  contest,  and  was  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis.  His  army  was 
totally  destroyed,  and  himself  only  restored  to  liberty  on  the 
payment  of  an  immense  ransom.f 

John  tlie  Fearless  succeeded  in  1404  to  the  inheritance  of 
all  his  father's  dominions,  with  the  exception  of  Brabant,  of 
which  his  younger  brother,  Anthony  of  Burgundy,  became 
duke.  John,  whose  ambitious  and  ferocious  character  became 
every  day  more  strongly  developed,  now  aspired  to  the  govern- 
ment of  France  during  the  insanity  of  his  cousin  Charles  VI, 
He  occupied  himself  little  with  the  affairs  of  the  Nether- 
lands, from  which  he  only  desired  to  draw  supplies  of  men. 
But  the  Flemings,  taking  no  interest  in  his  personal  views  or 
private  projects,  and  equally  indifferent  to  the  rivalry  of  Eng- 
land and  France  which  now  began  so  fearfully  to  afflict  the 
latter  kingdom,  forced  their  ambitious  count  to  declare  their 
province  a  neutral  country  ;|  so  that  the  English  merchants 
were  admitted  as  usual  to  trade  in  all  the  ports  of  Flanders, 
and  the  Flemings  equally  well  received  in  England,  while 
the  duke  made  open  war  against  Great  Britain  in  his  quality 
of  a  prince  of  France  and  sovereign  of  Burgundy.  This  is 
probably  the  earliest  well-established  instance  of  such  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  prince  and  the  people. 

Anthony  duke  of  Brabant,  the  brother  of  Philip,  was  not 
so  closely  restricted  in  his  authority  and  wishes.  He  led  all 
the  nobles  of  the  province  to  take  part  in  the  quarrels  of 
France ;  and  he  suffered  the  penalty  of  his  rashness,  in  meet- 
ing his  death  in  the  battle  of  Agincourt.  But  the  duchy 
suffered  nothing  by  this  event,  for  the  militia  of  the  country 
had  not  followed  their  duke  and  his  nobles  to  the  war ;  and  a 
national  council  was  now  established,  consisting  of  eleven 
persons,  tw^o  of  whom  were  ecclesiastics,  three  barons,  two 
knights,  and  four  commoners.  This  council,  formed  on  prin- 
ciples so  .  fairly  popular,  conducted  the  public  affiiirs  with 
great  wisdom  during  the  minority  of  the  young  duke.    Each 

*  Oudegherst,  Chron.  Vlaend.        .     f  De  Barante,  t.  ii.  |  Meyerus. 


1404.  JOHN    OF    BAVARIA.  51 

province  seems  thus  to  have  governed  itself  upon  principles 
of  republican  independence.  The  sovereigns  could  not  at 
discretion,  or  by  the  want  of  it,  play  the  bloody  game  of  war 
for  their  mere  amusement ;  and  the  emperor  putting  in  his 
claim  at  this  epoch  to  his  ancient  rights  of  sovereignty  over 
Brabant,  as  an  imperial  fief,  the  council  and  the  people  treated 
the  demand  with  derision. 

The  spirit  of  constitutional  liberty  and  legal  equality  which 
now  animated  the  various  provinces,  is  strongly  marked  in 
the  history  of  the  time  by  two  striking  and  characteristic  in- 
cidents. At  the  death  of  Philip  the  Bold,  his  widow  deposited 
on  his  tomb  her  purse,  and  the  keys  which  she  carried  at  her 
girdle  in  token  of  marriage ;  and  by  this  humiliating  cere- 
mony she  renounced  her  rights  to  a  succession  overloaded 
with  her  husband's  debts.*  In  the  same  year  (1404)  the 
widow  of  Albert  count  of  Holland  and  Hainault,  finding  her- 
self in  similar  circumstances,  required  of  the  bailiff  of  Hol- 
land and  the  judges  of  his  court  permission  to  make  a  like 
renunciation.  The  claim  was  granted ;  and  to  fulfil  the  re- 
quisite ceremony,  she  walked  at  the  head  of  the  funeral  pro- 
cession, carrying  in  her  hand  a  blade  of  straw,  which  she 
placed  on  the  cofRn.f  We  thus  find  that  in  such  cases  the 
reigning  families  were  held  liable  to  follow  the  common 
usages  of  the  country.  From  such  instances  there  required 
but  little  progress  in  the  principle  of  equality  to  reach  the 
republican  contempt  for  rank,  which  made  the  citizens  of 
Bruges  in  the  following  century  arrest  their  count  for  his 
private  debts. 

The  spirit  of  independence  had  reached  the  same  point  at 
Liege.  The  families  of  the  counts  of  Holland  and  Hainault, 
which  were  at  this  time  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Ba- 
varia, because  they  were  only  descended  from  the  ancient 
counts  of  Netherland  extraction  in  the  female  line,  had  suffi- 
cient influence  to  obtain  the  nomination  to  the  bishopric  for 
a  prince  who  was  at  the  period  in  his  infancy.  John  of  Ba- 
varia,— for  so  he  was  called,  and  to  his  name  was  afterwards 
added  the  epithet  of  "  the  Pitiless," — on  reaching  his  ma- 
jority, did  not  think  it  necessary  to  cause  himself  to  be  con- 
secrated a  priest,  but  governed  as  a  lay  sovereign.  The  in- 
dignant citizens  of  Liege  expelled  him,  and  chose  another 
bishop.  But  the  houses  of  Burgundy  and  Bavaria,  closely 
allied  by  intermarriages,  made  common  cause  in  his  quarrel ; 
and  John  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  William  IV.  count  of  Hol- 

*  Monstrclet.  t.  i.  t  Wagenaar,  Hist.  Van  Vadeiiand, 


52  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1416. 

land  and  Ilainault,  brother  of  the  bishop,  replaced  by  forco 
this  cruel  and  unworthy  prelate. 

This  union  of  the  government  over  all  the  provinces  in 
two  families  so  closely  connected,  rendered  the  preponder- 
ance of  the  rulers  too  strong  for  that  balance  hitherto  kept 
steady  by  the  popular  force.  The  former  could  on  each  new 
quarrel  join  together,  and  employ  against  any  particular  town 
their  w^hole  united  resources ;  whereas  the  latter  could  only 
act  by  isolated  efforts  for  the  maintenance  of  their  separate 
rights.  Such  w^as  the  cause  of  a  considerable  decline  in 
public  liberty  during  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  true  that 
John  the  Fearless  gave  ahnost  his  whole  attention  to  his 
French  political  intrigues,  and  to  the  fierce  quarrels  w^hich 
he  maintained  with  the  house  of  Orleans.  But  his  nephew, 
John  duke  of  Brabant,  having  married,  in  1416,  his  cousin 
Jacqueline,  daughter  and  heiress  of  William  IV.  count  of 
Holland  and  Hainault,  this  branch  of  the  house  of  Burgundy 
seemed  to  get  the  start  of  the  elder  in  its  progressive  influ- 
ence over  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  The  dukes  of 
Guelders,  who  had  changed  their  title  of  counts  for  one  of 
superior  rank,  acquired  no  accession  of  power  proportioned 
to  their  new  dignity.  The  bishops  of  Utrecht  became  by 
degrees  weaker ;  private  dissensions  enfeebled  Friesland ; 
Luxembourg  was  a  poor  unimportant  dukedom ;  but  Holland, 
Hainault,  and  Brabant,  formed  the  very  heart  of  the  Nether- 
lands ;  while  the  elder  branch  of  the  same  family,  under 
whom  they  were  united,  possessed  Flanders,  Artois,  and  the 
two  Burgundys.  To  complete  the  prosperity  and  power  of 
this  latter  branch,  it  was  soon  destined  to  inherit  the  entire 
dominions  of  the  other. 

A  fact,  the  consequences  of  which  w^ere  so  important  for 
the  entire  of  Europe,  merits  considerable  attention ;  but  it  is 
most  difficult  to  explain  at  once  concisely  and  clearly  the 
series  of  accidents,  manoeuvres,  tricks,  and  crimes,  by  which 
it  was  accomplished.  It  must  first  be  remarked,  that  this 
John  of  Brabant,  become  the  husband  of  his  cousui  Jacqueline 
countess  of  Holland  and  Hainault,  possessed  neither  the 
moral  nor  physical  qualities  suited  to  mate  wdth  the  most  love- 
ly, intrepid,  and  talented  woman  of  her  times ;  nor  the  vigor 
and  firmness  required  for  the  maintenance  of  an  increased, 
and  for  those  days  a  considerable,  dominion.  Jacqueline 
thoroughly  despised  her  insignificant  husband  ;  first  in  secret, 
and  subsequently  by  those  open  avowals  forced  from  her  by 
his  revolting  combination  of  w^eakncss,  cowardice,  and  tyran- 
ny. He  tamely  allowed  the  province  of  Holland  to  be  in- 
vaded by  the  same  ungrateful  bishop  of  Liege,  John  the  Piti- 


1431.  PHILIP    OF   BURGUNDY.  53 

less,  whom  his  wife's  father  and  his  own  uncle  had  re-estab- 
lished in  his  justly  forfeited  authority.  But  John  of  Brabant 
revenged  himself  for  his  wife's  contempt  by  a  series  of  do- 
mestic persecutions  so  odious,  that  the  states  of  Brabant  in- 
terfered for  her  protection.  Finding  it,  however,  impossible 
to  remain  in  a  perpetual  contest  with  a  husband  whom  she 
hat^d  and  despised,  she  fled  from  Brussels,  where  he  held  his 
ducal  court,  and  took  refuge  in  England,  under  the  protection 
of  Henry  V.,  at  that  time  in  the  plenitude  of  his  fame  and 
power.* 

England  at  this  epoch  enjoyed  the  proudest  station  in  Euro- 
pean affairs.  John  the  Fearless,  after  having  caused  the 
murder  of  his  rival  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  himself  assassi- 
nated on  the  bridge  of  Montereau,  by  the  followers  of  the 
dauphin  of  France,  and  in  his  presence.  Philip  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  son  and  successor  of  John,  had  formed  a  close  alli- 
ance with  Henry  V.,  to  revenge  his  father's  murder;  and 
soon  after  the  death  of  the  king  he  married  his  sister,  and 
thus  united  himself  still  more  nearly  to  the  celebrated  John 
duke  of  Bedford,  brother  of  Henry,  and  regent  of  France,  in 
the  name  of  his  infant  nephew,  Henry  VI.  But  besides  the 
share  on  which  he  reckoned  in  the  spoils  of  France,  Philip 
also  looked  with  a  covetous  eye  on  the  inheritance  of  Jacque- 
line, his  cousin.  As  soon  as  he  had  learned  that  this  princess, 
so  well  received  in  England,  was  taking  measures  for  having 
her  marriage  annulled,  to  enable  her  to  espouse  the  duke  of 
Gloucester,  also  the  brother  of  Henry  V.,  and  subsequently 
known  by  the  appellation  of  "  the  good  duke  Humphrey," 
he  was  tormented  by  a  double  anxiety.  He,  in  the  first  place, 
dreaded  that  Jacqueline  might  have  children  by  her  projected 
marriage  with  Gloucester,  (a  circumstance  neither  likely, 
nor  even  possible,  in  the  opinion  of  some  historians,  'to  result 
from  her  union  with  John  of  Brabant, f)  and  thus  deprive  him 
of  his  right  of  succession  to  lier  states ;  and  in  the  next,  he 
was  jealous  of  the  possible  domination  of  England  in  the 
Netherlands  as  well  as  in  France.  He  therefore  soon  became 
self-absolved  from  all  his  vows  of  revenge  in  the  cause  of  his 
murdered  father,  and  labored  solely  for  the  object  of  his  per- 
sonal aggrandizement.  To  break  his  connexion  with  Bed- 
ford ;  to  treat  secretly  with  the  dauphin,  his  father's  assassin, 
or  at  least  the  witness  and  warrant  for  his  assassination ;  and 
to  shuffle  from  party  to  party  as  occasion  required;  were 
movements  of  no  difficulty  to  Philip,  surnamed  "  the  Good." 
He  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  his  infamous  relative  John 

♦  Monstrelet.  f  Hume,  vol.  iii.  p.  133. 

E2 


54  HISTORY    OF   THE    INETHERLANDS.  1436. 

of*  Brabant ;  sent  a  powerful  army  into  Hainault,  which  Glou- 
cester vainly  strove  to  defend  in  right  of  his  affianced  wife ; 
and  next  seized  on  Holland  and  Zealand,  where  he  met  with 
a  long-  but  ineffectual  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  courageous 
woman  he  so  mercilessly  oppressed.  Jacqueline,  deprived  of 
the  assistance  of  her  staunch  but  ruined  friends,*  and  aban- 
doned by  Gloucester,  (who,  on  the  refusal  of  pope  Martin  V. 
to  sanction  her  divorce,  had  married  another  woman,  and  but 
feebly  aided  the  efforts  of  the  former  to  maintain  her  rights,) 
was  now  left  a  widow  by  the  death  of  John  of  Brabant.  But 
Philip,  without  a  shadow  of  justice,  pursued  liis  designs 
against  her  dominions,  and  finally  despoiled  her  of  her  last 
possessions,  and  even  of  the  title  of  countess,  which  she  for- 
feited by  her  marriage  with  Vrank  Van  Borselen,  a  gentle- 
man of  Zealand,  contrary  to  a  compact  to  which  Philip's  tyr- 
anny had  forced  her  to  consent.  After  a  career  the  most 
chequered  and  romantic  which  is  recorded  in  history,  the 
beautiful  and  hitherto  unfortunate  Jacqueline  found  repose 
and  happiness  in  the  tranquillity  of  private  life;  and  her 
death  in  1436,  at  the  age  of  thirty-six,  removed  all  restraint 
from  Philip's  thirst  for  aggrandizement,  in  the  indulgence 
of  which  he  drowned  his  remorse.  As  if  fortune  had  con- 
spired for  the  rapid  consolidation  of  his  greatness,  the  death 
of  Philip  count  of  St.  Pol,  who  had  succeeded  his  brother 
John  in  the  dukedom  of  Brabant,  gave  him  the  sovereignty 
of  that  extensive  province ;  and  his  dominions  soon  extended 
to  the  very  limits  of  Picardy,  by  the  peace  of  Arras,  con- 
cluded with  the  dauphin,  now  become  Charles  VII.,  and  by 
his  finally  contracting  a  strict  alliance  with  France. 

Philip  of  Burgundy,  thus  become  sovereign  of  dominions 
at  once  so  extensive  and  compact,  had  the  precaution  and  ad- 
dress to  obtain  from  the  emperor  a  formal  renunciation  of  his 
existing,  though  almost  nominal,  rights  as  lord  paramount. 
He  next  purchased  the  title  of  the  duchess  of  Luxembourg 
to  that  duchy ;  and  thus  the  states  of  the  house  of  Burgundy 
gained  an  extent  about  equal  to  that  of  the  existing  kingdom 

*  We  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  existence  of  two  factions,  which,  for 
near  two  centuries,  divided  and  agitated  the  whole  population  of  Holland 
and  Zealand.  One  bore  the  title  of  Hoeks  (fishinsr-hooks;)  tlie  other  was 
called  Kaabeljavws  (cotl-fisli.)  The  origin  of  these  burlesque  denominations 
was  a  dispute  between  two  parties  at  a  feast,  as  to  wliether  the  cod-fish 
took  the  hook,  or  the  hook  the  cod-fish  ?  This  apparently  frivolous  dispute 
was  made  the  pretext  for  a  serious  quarrel ;  and  the  partisans  of  the  nobles 
and  those  of  the  towns  ranged  themselves  at  either  side,  and  assumed  differ- 
ent badges  of  distinction.  The  Iloeks,  partisans  of  the  towns,  wore  red 
caps;  the  KaabeJjauws  wore  gray  ones.  In  Jacqueline's  quarrel  with  Philip 
of  Burgundy,  she  was  supported  by  the  former;  and  it  was  not  till  the  year 
1492  that  the  extinction  of  that  popular  and  turbulent  faction  struck  a  final 
blow  to  the  dissensions  of  both. 


1450.  REBELLION    OF    GHENT.  55 

of  the  Netherlands.  For  altliough  on  the  north  and  east  they 
did  not  include  Friesland,  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht,  Gueldcrs, 
or  the  province  of  Liege,  still  on  the  south  and  west  they 
comprised  French  Flanders,  the  Boulonnais,  Artois,  and  a 
part  of  Picardy,  besides  Burgundy.  But  it  has  been  already 
seen  how  limited  an  authority  was  possessed  by  the  rulers 
of  the  maritime  provinces.  Flanders  in  particular,  the  most 
populous  and  wealthy,  strictly  preserved  its  republican  insti- 
tutions. Ghent  and  Bruges  were  the  two  great  towms  of  the 
province,  and  each  maintained  its  individual  authority  over 
its  respective  territory,  with  great  indifference  to  the  will  or 
the  wishes  of  the  sovereign  duke.  Philip,  however,  had  the 
policy  to  divide  most  effectually  these  rival  towns.  After 
having  fallen  into  the  hands  cf  the  people  of  Bruges,  whom 
he  made  a  vain  attempt  to  surprise,  and  who  massacred  num- 
bers of  his  followers  before  his  eyes,  he  forced  them  to  sub- 
mission by  the  assistance  of  the  citizens  of  Ghent,  who  sanc- 
tioned the  banishment  of  the  chief  men  of  the  vanquished 
town.*  But  some  years  later  Ghent  was  in  its  turn  oppressed 
and  punished  for  having  resisted  the  payment  of  some  new 
tax.  It  found  no  support  from  the  rest  of  Flanders.  Never- 
theless this  powerful  city  singly  maintained  the  war  for  the 
space  of  two  years :  but  the  intrepid  burghers  finally  yielded 
to  the  veterans  of  the  duke,  formed  to  victory  in  the  French 
wars.  The  principal  privileges  of  Ghent  were  on  this  occa- 
sion revoked  and  annulled.f 

,  During  these  transactions  the  province  of  Holland,  which 
enjoyed  a  degree  of  liberty  almost  equal  to  Flanders,  had  de- 
clared war  against  the  Hanseatic  towns  on  its  own  proper 
authority.  Supported  by  Zealand,  which  formed  a  distinct 
country,  but  was  strictly  united  to  it  by  a  common  interest, 
Holland  equipped  a  fleet  against  the  pirates  which  infested 
their  coasts  and  assailed  their  commerce,  and  soon  forced 
them  to  submission.  Philip  in  the  mean  time  contrived  to 
manage  the  conflicting  elements  of  his  power  with  great 
subtlety.  Notwithstanding  his  ambitious  and  despotic  char- 
acter, he  conducted  himself  so  cautiously,  that  his  people  by 
common  consent  confirmed  his  title  of  "the  Good,"  which 
was  somewhat  inappropriately  given  to  him  at  the  very  epoch 
when  he  appeared  to  deserve  it  least.  Age  and  exhaustion 
may  be  adduced  among  the  causes  of  the  toleration  which 
signalized  his  latter  years ;  and  if  he  was  the  usurper  of  some 
parts  of  his  dominions,  he  cannot  be  pronounced  a  tyrant 
over  any. 

*  Oudegheist.  j  De  Barante,  t.  vi. 


56  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1467. 

Philip  had  an  only  son,  born  and  reared  in  the  midst  of 
that  ostentatious  greatness  which  he  looked  on  as  his  own  by 
divine  right;  whereas  his  father  remembered  that  it  had 
chiefly  become  his  by  fortuitous  acquirement,  and  much  of  it 
by  means  not  likely  to  look  well  in  the  sight  of  Heaven.  This 
son  was  Charles  count  of  Charolois,  afterwards  celebrated 
under  the  name  of  Charles  the  Rash.  He  gave,  even  in  the 
lifetime  of  his  father,  a  striking  specimen  of  despotism  to 
the  people  of  Holland.  Appointed  stadtholder  of  that  province 
in  1457,  he  appropriated  to  himself  several  important  suc- 
cessions ;  forced  the  inhabitants  to  labor  in  the  formation  of 
dikes  for  the  security  of  the  property  thus  acquired ;  and,  in 
a  word,  conducted  himself  as  an  absolute  master.*  Soon  after- 
wards he  broke  out  into  open  opposition  to  his  father,  who 
had  complained  of  this  undutiful  and  impetuous  son  to  the 
states  of  the  provinces,  venting  his  grief  in  lamentations  in- 
stead of  punishing  his  people's  wrongs.  But  his  private 
rage  burst  forth  one  day  in  a  manner  as  furious  as  his  public 
expressions  were  tame.  He  went  so  far  as  to  draw  his 
sword  on  Charles  and  pursue  him  through  his  palace  :f  and  a 
disgusting  yet  instruptive  spectacle  it  was,  to  see  this  father 
and  son  in  mutual  and  disgraceful  discord,  like  two  birds 
of  prey  quarrelling  in  the  same  eyrie ;  the  old  count  out- 
rageous to  find  he  was  no  longer  undisputed  sovereign,  and 
the  young  one  in  feeling  that  he  had  not  yet  become  so.  But 
Philip  was  declining  daily.  Yet  even  when  dying  he  pre- 
served his  natural  haughtiness  and  energy ;  and  being  pro- 
voked by  the  insubordination  of  tlie  people  of  Liege,  he  had 
himself  carried  to  the  scene  of  their  punishment.  The  re- 
fractory town  of  Dinant,  on  the  Meuse,  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  the  two  counts,  and  600  of  the  citizens  drowned  in  the 
river,  and  in  cold  blood.  The  following  year  Philip  expired, 
leaving  to  Charles  his  long-wished-for  inheritance. 

The  reign  of  Philip  had  produced  a  revolution  in  Belgian 
manners ;  for  his  example  and  the  great  increase  of  wealth 
had  introduced  habits  of  luxury  hitherto  quite  unknown.  He 
had  also  brought  into  fashion  romantic  notions  of  military 
honor,  love,  and  chivalry ;  which,  while  they  certainly  soft- 
ened the  character  of  the  nobility,  contained  nevertheless  a 
certain  mixture  of  frivolity  and  extravagance.  The  cele- 
brated order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  which  was  introduced  by 
Philip,  was  less  an  institution  based  on  grounds  of  rational 
magnificence,  than  a  puerile  emblem  of  his  passion  for  Isa- 
bella of  Portugal,  his  third  wife.     Tlie  verses  of  a  contempo- 

*  Preuves  et  Additions  sur  Comines,  t.  iv.         f  Chronique  de  HoUande. 


1467.  CIIAKLES    THE    KASH.  57 

rary  poet  induced  him  to  make  a  vow  for  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople  from  the  Turks.*  lie  certainly  never  at- 
tempted to  execute  this  senseless  crusade;  but  he  did  not 
omit  so  fair  an  opportunity  for  levying  new  taxes  on  his 
people.  And  it  is  undoubted,  that  the  splendor  of  his  court 
and  the  immorality  of  his  example  were  no  slight  sources 
of  corruption  to  the  countries  which  he  governed. 

In  this  respect,  at  least,  a  totally  different  kind  of  govern- 
ment was  looked  for  on  the  part  of  his  son  and  successor, 
who  was  by  nature  and  habit  a  mere  soldier.  Charles  began 
his  career  by  seizing  on  all  the  money  and  jewels  left  by  his 
father ;  he  next  dismissed  the  crowd  of  useless  functionaries 
who  had  fed  upon,  under  the  pretence  of  managing,  the 
treasures  of  the  state.  But  this  salutary  and  sweeping  re- 
form was  only  effected  to  enable  the  sovereign  to  pursue  un- 
controlled the  most  fatal  of  all  passions,  that  of  war.  Nothing 
can  better  paint  the  true  character  of  this  haughty  and 
impetuous  prince  than  his  crest  (a  branch  of  holly,)  and  his 
motto,  "  Who  touches  it,  pricks  himself"  Charles  had  con- 
ceived a  furious  and  not  ill-founded  hatred  for  his  base  yet 
formidable  neighbor  and  rival,  Louis  XL  of  France.  The 
latter  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Philip  the  restitution 
of  some  towns  in  Picardy ;  cause  sufficient  to  excite  the 
resentment  of  his  inflammable  successor,  w^ho,  during  his 
father's  lifetime,  took  open  part  with  som.e  of  the  vassals  of 
France  in  a  temporary  struggle  against  the  throne.  Louis, 
who  had  been  worsted  in  a  combat  where  both  he  and 
Charles  bore  a  part,  was  not  behindhand  in  his  hatred.  But 
inasmuch  as  one  was  haughty,  audacious,  and  intemperate, 
the  other  was  cunning,  coo],  and  treacherous.  Charles  was 
the  proudest,  most  daring,  and  mxost  unmanageable  prince 
that  ever  made  the  sword  the  type  and  the  guarantee  of 
greatness  ;  Louis  the  most  subtle,  dissimulating,  and  treacher- 
ous king  that  ever  wove  in  his  closet  a  tissue  of  hollow 
diplomacy  and  bad  faith  in  government.  The  struggle  be- 
tween these  sovereigns  was  unequal  only  in  respect  to  this 
difference  of  character ;  for  France,  subdivided  as  it  still  was, 
and  exhausted  by  the  wars  with  England,  was  not  compara- 
ble, eitlier  as  regarded  men,  money,  or  the  other  resources  of 
the  state,  to  the  compact  and  prosperous  dominions  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

Charles  showed  some  symptoms  of  good  sense  and  great- 
ness of  mind,  soon  after  his  accession  to  power,  that  gave  a 
false   coloring   to  his  disposition,  and   encouraged   illusory 

*  Monstrelet.    Olivier  de  la  Mirche. 


58  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLAIVDS.  1468 

hopes  as  to  his  future  career.  Scarcely  was  he  proclaimed 
count  of  Flanders  at  Ghent,  when  the  populace,  surrounding 
liis  hotel,  absolutely  insisted  on  and  extorted  his  consent  to 
the  restitution  of  their  ancieht  privileges.*  Furious  as  Charles 
was  at  this  bold  proof  of  insubordination,  he  did  not  revenge 
it;  and  he  treated  with  equal  indulgence  the  city  of  Mechlin, 
which  had  expelled  its  governor  and  rased  the  citadel.  The 
people  of  Liege,  having  revolted  against  their  bishop,  Louis 
of  Bourbon,  who  was  closely  connected  with  the  house  of 
Burgundy,  were  defeated  by  the  duke  in  14.67,  but  he  treated 
them  with  clemency ;  and  immediately  after  this  event,  in 
February  1468,  he  concluded  with  Edward  IV.  of  England 
an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  against  France.f 

The  real  motive  of  this  alliance  was  rivalry  and  hatred 
against  Louis.  The  ostensible  pretext  was  this  monarch's 
having  made  war  against  the  duke  of  Britany,  Charles's  old 
ally  in  the  short  contest  in  which  he,  while  yet  but  count, 
had  measured  his  strength  with  his  rival  after  he  became 
king.  The  present  union  between  England  and  Burgundy 
was  too  powerful  not  to  alarm  Louis;  he  demanded  an 
explanatory  conference  with  Charles,  and  the  town  of  Pe- 
ronne  in  Picardy  was  fixed  on  for  their  meetmg.  Louis, 
willing  to  imitate  the  boldness  of  his  rival,  who  had  formerly 
come  to  meet  him  in  the  very  midst  of  his  army,  now  came  to 
the  rendezvous  almost  alone.  But  he  was  severely  mortified, 
and  near  paying  a  greater  penalty  than  fright,  for  this 
hazardous  conduct.  The  duke,  having  received  intelligence 
of  a  new  revolt  at  Liege  excited  by  some  of  the  agents  of 
France,  instantly  made  Louis  prisoner,  in  defiance  of  every 
law  of  honor  or  fair  dealing.  The  excess  of  his  rage  and 
hatred  might  have  carried  him  to  a  more  disgraceful  ex- 
tremity, had  not  Louis,  by  force  of  bribery,  gained  over  some 
of  his  most  influential  counsellors,  who  succeeded  in  appeas- 
ing his  rage.  He  contented  himself  with  humiliating,  when 
he  was  disposed  to  punish.  He  forced  his  captive  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Liege,  and  witness  the  ruin  of  this  unfortunate 
town,  which  he  delivered  over  to  plunder ;  and  having  given 
this  lesson  to  Louis,  he  set  him  at  liberty. 

From  this  period  there  was  a  marked  and  material  change 
in  the  conduct  of  Charles.  He  had  been  previously  moved 
by  sentiments  of  chivalry  and  notions  of  greatness.  But  sul- 
lied by  his  act  of  public  treachery  and  violence  towards  the 
monarch  who  had,  at  least  in  seeming,  manifested  unlimited 
confidence  in  his  honor,  a  secret  sense  of  shame  embittered 

*  Philip  de  Cominea.  t  Rymer,  vol.  v.  p.  11. 


I 


1472.       CIIARLKS'S    PLANS    OF    AGGRANDIZEMENT.  59 

his  feelings  and  soured  his  temper.  He  hecame  so  insup- 
portable to  those  around  liim,  that  he  was  abandoned  by  sev- 
eral of  his  best  officers,  and  even  by  his  natural  brother, 
Baldwin  of  Biu-gundy,  w^ho  passed  over  to  the  side  of  Louis. 
Charles  was  at  this  time  embarrassed  by  the  expense  of  en- 
tertaining and  maintaining  Edward  IV.  and  numerous  Eng- 
lish exiles,  wiio  were  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  Netherlands 
by  the  successes  of  the  earl  of  Warwick,  wiio  had  replaced 
Henry  VI.  on  the  throne.*  Charles  at.  the  same  time  held 
out  to  several  princes  in  Europe  hopes  of  bestowing  on  them 
in  marriage  his  only  daughter  and  heiress  Mary,  while  he 
privately  assured  his  friends,  if  his  courtiers  and  ministers 
may  be  so  called,  "  that  he  never  meant  to  have  a  son-in-law 
until  he  was  disposed  to  make  himself  a  monk."  In  a  word, 
he  was  no  longer  guided  by  any  principle  but  that  of  fierce 
and  brutal  selfishness. 

In  this  mood  he  soon  became  tired  of  the  service  of  his 
nobles  and  of  the  national  militia,  who  only  maintained  to- 
wards him  a  forced  and  modified  obedience  founded  on  the 
usages  and  rights  of  their  several  provinces ;  and  he  took 
into  his  pay  all  sorts  of  adventurers  and  vagabonds  who  were 
virilling  to  submit  to  him  as  their  absolute  master.  When 
the  taxes  necessary  for  the  support  and  pay  of  these  bands  of 
mercenaries  caused  the  people  to  murmur,  Charles  laughed 
at  their  complaints,  and  severely  punished  some  of  the  most 
refractory.  He  then  entered  France  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
to  assist  the  duke  of  Britany ;  but  at  the  moment  when  no- 
thing seemed  to  oppose  the  most  extensive  views  of  his  am- 
bition, he  lost  by  his  hot-brained  caprice  every  advantage 
within  his  easy  reach :  he  chose  to  sit  down  before  Beauvais ; 
and  thus  made  of  this  town,  which  lay  in  his  road,  a  complete 
stumbling-block  on  his  path  of  conquest.  The  time  he  lost 
before  its  walls  caused  the  defeat  and  ruin  of  his  unsupported, 
or  as  might  be  said  his  abandoned,  ally,  who  made  the  best 
terms  he  could  with  Louis ;  and  thus  Charles's  presumption 
and  obstinacy  paralyzed  all  the  efforts  of  his  courage  and 
power.  But  he  soon  afterwards  acquired  the  duchy  of  Gueld- 
ers  from  the  old  duke  Arnoul,  who  had  been  temporarily 
despoiled  of  it  by  his  son  Adolphus.  It  was  almost  an  heredi- 
tary consequence  in  this  family  that  the  children  should 
revolt  and  rebel  against  their  parents.  Adolphus  had  the 
effi-ontery  to  found  his  justification  on  the  argument,  that  his 
father  having  reigned  forty-four  years,  he  was  fully  entitled 
to  his  share — a  fine  practical  authority  for  greedy  and  expect- 

*  Philip  de  Comines,  1.  v. 


60  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1473. 

ant  lieirs.  The  old  father  replied  to  this  reasoning  by  offer- 
ing to  meet  his  son  in  single  combat.*  Charles  cut  short  the 
affair  by  making  Adolphus  prisoner  and  seizing  on  the  dis- 
puted territory,  for  which  he,  however,  paid  Arnoul  the  sum 
of  220,000  florins. 

After  this  acquisition  Charles  conceived  and  had  much  at 
heart  the  design  of  becoming  king,  the  first  time  that  the 
Netherlands  were  considered  sufficiently  important  and  con- 
solidated to  entitle  their  possessor  to  that  title.  To  lead  to 
this  object  he  offered  to  the  emperor  of  Germany  the  hand  of 
his  daughter  Mary  for  his  son  Maximilian.  The  emperor  ac- 
ceded to  this  proposition,  and  repaired  to  the  city  of  Treves 
to  meet  Charles  and  countenance  his  coronation.  But  the 
insolence  and  selfishness  of  the  latter  put  an  end  to  the  pro- 
ject. He  humiliated  the  emperor,  who  was  of  a  niggardly 
and  mean-spirited  disposition,  by  appearing  with  a  train  so 
numerous  and  sumptuous  as  totally  to  eclipse  the  imperial 
retinue ;  and  deeply  offended  him  by  wishing  to  postpone  the 
marriage,  from  his  jealousy  of  creating  for  himself  a  rival  in 
a  son-in-law,  who  might  embitter  his  old  age  as  he  had 
done  that  of  his  own  father.  The  mortified  emperor  quitted 
the  place  in  high  dudgeon,  and  the  projected  kingdom  was 
doomed  to  a  delay  of  some  centuries. 

Charles,  urged  on  by  the  double  motive  of  thirst  for  ag- 
grandizement and  vexation  at  his  late  failure,  attempted,! 
under  pretext  of  some  internal  dissensions,  to  gain  possession 
of  Cologne  and  its  territory,  which  belonged  to  the  empire ; 
and  at  the  same  time  planned  the  invasion  of  France,  in  con- 
cert with  his  brother-in-law  Edward  IV.,  who  had  recovered 
possession  of  England.  But  the  town  of  Nuys,  in  the  arch- 
l3ishopric  of  Cologne,  occupied  him  a  full  year  before  its  walls. 
The  emperor,  who  came  to  its  succor,  actually  besieged  the 
besiegers  in  their  camp ;  and  the  dispute  was  terminated  by 
leaving  it  to  the  arbitration  of  the  pope's  legate,  and  placing 
the  contested  town  in  his  keeping.  This  half  triumph  gained 
by  Charles  saved  Louis  wholly  from  destruction.  Edward, 
who  had  landed  in  France  with  a  numerous  force,  seeing  no 
appearance  of  his  Burgundian  allies,  made  peace  with  Louis ; 
and  Charles,  who  arrived  in  all  haste,  but  not  till  afler  the 
treaty  was  signed,  upbraided  and  abused  the  English  king, 
and  turned  a  warm  friend  into  an  inveterate  enemy. 

Louis,  whose  crooked  policy  had  so  far  succeeded  on  all 
occasions,  now  seemed  to  favor  Charles's  plans  of  aggran- 
dizement, and  to  recognize  his  pretended  riglit  to  Lorraine, 

*  Comines,  t.  iv. 


1473.     CHARLES  DEFEATED  BY  THE  SWISS.        61 

which  legitimately  belonged  to  the  empire,  and  the  invasion 
of  which  by  Charles  would  be  sure  to  set  him  at  variance 
with  the  whole  of  Germany.  The  infatuated  duke,  blind  to 
the  ruin  to  which  he  was  thus  hurrying,  abandoned  to  Louis, 
in  return  for  this  insidious  support,  the  constable  of  St.  Pol ; 
a  nobleman  who  had  long  maintained  his  independence  in 
Picardy,  where  he  had  large  possessions,  and  who  v/as  fitted 
to  be  a  valuable  friend  or  formidable  enemy  to  either.  Charles 
now  marched  against,  and  soon  overcame,  Lorraine.  Thence 
he  turned  his  army  against  the  Swiss,  who  were  allies  to  the 
conquered  province,  but  who  sent  the  most  submissive  dis- 
suasions to  the  invader.  They  begged  for  peace,  assuring 
Charles  that  their  romantic  but  sterile  mountains  were  not 
altogether  worth  the  bridles  of  his  splendidly  equipped  caval- 
ry. But  tlie  more  they  humbled  themselves,  the  higher  was 
his  haughtiness  raised.  It  appeared  that  he  had  at  this  pe- 
riod conceived  the  project  of  uniting  in  one  common  conquest 
the  ancient  dominions  of  Lothaire  I.,  who  had  possessed  the 
whole  of  the  countries  traversed  by  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone, 
and  the  Po ;  and  he  even  spoke  of  passing  the  Alps,  like 
Hannibal,  for  the  invasion  of  Italy. 

Switzerland  was,  by  moral  analogy  as  well  as  physical 
fact,  the  rock  against  which  these  extravagant  projects  were 
shattered.  The  army  of  Charles,  which  engaged  the  hardy 
mountaineers  in  the  gorges  of  the  Alps  near  the  town  of 
Granson,  were  literally  crushed  to  atoms  by  the  stones  and 
fragments  of  granite  detached  from  the  heights  and  hurled 
down  upon  their  heads.  Charles,  after  this  defeat,  returned 
to  the  charge  six  weeks  later,  having  rallied  his  army  and 
drawn  reinforcements  from  Burgundy.  But  Louis  had  dis- 
patched a  body  of  cavalry  to  the  Swiss, — a  force  in  which 
they  were  before  deficient ;  and  thus  augmented,  their  army 
amounted  to  34,000  men.  They  took  up  a  position,  skilfully 
chosen,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  of  Morat,  where  they  were 
attacked  by  Charles  at  the  head  60,000  soldiers  of  all  ranks. 
The  result  was  the  total  defeat  of  the  latter,  with  the  loss  of 
10,000  killed,  whose  bones,  gathered  into  an  immense  heap, 
and  bleaching  in  the  winds,  remained  for  above  three  centu- 
ries ;*  a  terrible  monument  of  rashness  and  injustice  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  patriotism  and  valor  on  the  other. 

Charles  was  now  plunged  into  a  state  of  profound  melan- 
choly ;  but  he  soon  burst  from  this  gloomy  mood  into  one  of 
renewed  fierceness  and  fatal  desperation.  Nine  months  after 
the  battle  of  Morat  he  re-entered  Lorraine,  at  the  head  of  an 

*  Gaudin,  Abr6g6  de  I'Hist.  de  la  Suisse,  p.  63. 

F 


62  HISTORY    or   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1477. 

army,  not  composed  of  his  faithful  militia  of  the  Netherlands, 
but  of  those  mercenaries  in  whom  it  was  madness  to  place 
trust  The  reinforcements  meant  to  be  dispatched  to  him  by 
those  provinces  were  kept  back  by  the  artifices  of  the  count 
of  Campo  Basso,  an  Italian,  who  commanded  his  cavalry,  and 
who  only  gained  his  confidence  basely  to  betray  it.  Rene 
duke  of  Lorraine,  at  the  head  of  the  confederate  forces, 
offered  battle  to  Charles  under  the  walls  of  Nancy  ;  and  the 
night  before  the  combat  Campo  Basso  went  over  to  the  enemy 
with  the  troops  under  his  command.  Still  Charles  had  the 
way  open  for  retreat.  Fresh  troops  from  Burgundy  and 
Flanders  were  on  their  march  to  join  him ;  but  he  would  not 
be  dissuaded  from  his  resolution  to  fight,  and  he  resolved  to 
try  his  fortune  once  more  with  his  dispirited  and  shattered 
army.  On  this  occasion  the  fate  of  Charles  was  decided,  and 
the  fortune  of  Louis  triumphant.  The  rash  and  ill-fated 
duke  lost  both  the  battle  and  his  life.f  His  body,  mutilated 
with  wounds,  was  found  the  next  day,  and  buried  with  great 
pomp  in  the  town  of  Nancy,  by  the  orders  of  the  generous 
victor,  the  duke  of  Lorraine. 

Thus  perished  the  last  prince  of  the  powerful  house  of 
Burgundy.  Charles  left  to  his  only  daughter,  then  eighteen 
years  of  age,  the  inheritance  of  his  extensive  dominions,  and 
with  them  that  of  the  hatred  and  jealousy  which  he  had  so 
largely  excited.  External  spoliation  immediately  commenced, 
and  internal  disunion  quickly  followed.  Louis  XL  seized  on 
Burgundy  and  a  part  of  Artois,  as  fiefs  devolving  to  the 
crown  in  default  of  male  issue.  Several  of  the  provinces 
refused  to  pay  the  new  subsidies  commanded  in  the  name  of 
Mary;  Flanders  alone  showing  a  disposition  to  uphold  the 
rights  of  the  young  princess.  The  states  were  assembled  at 
Ghent,  and  ambassadors  sent  to  the  king  of  France,  in  the 
hopes  of  obtaining  peace  on  reasonable  terms.  Louis,  true 
to  his  system  of  subtle  perfidy,  placed  before  one  of  those 
ambassadors,  the  burgomaster  of  Ghent,  a  letter  from  the  in- 
experienced princess,  which  proved  her  intention  to  govern 
by  the  counsel  of  her  father's  ancient  ministers,  rather  than 
by  that  of  the  deputies  of  the  nation.  This  was  enough  to 
decide  the  indignant  Flemings  to  render  themselves  at  once 
masters  of  the  government,  and  get  rid  of  the  ministers  J 
whom  they  hated.  Two  Burgundian  nobles,  Hugonet  and! 
Imbercourt,  were  arrested,  accused  of  treason,  and  beheaded  j 
under  the  very  eyes  of  their  agonized  and  outraged  mistress,  i 
who  threw  herself  before  the  frenzied  multitude,  vainly  im- 

t  5th  Jan.  1477. 


.'^m 


1484.  MARY    AND    MAXIMILIAN.  63 

ploring  mercy  for  these  innocent  men.  The  people  having 
thus  completely  gained  the  upper  hand  over  the  Burgundian 
influence,  Mary  was  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands  but  in 
name. 

It  would  have  now  been  easy  for  Louis  XL  to  have  obtained 
-for  the  dauphm,  his  son,  the  hand  of  this  hitherto  unfortunate 
but  interesting  princess ;  but  he  thought  himself  sufficiently 
strong  and  cunning  to  gain  possession  of  her  states  without 
such  an  alliance.  Mary,  however,  thus  in  some  measure  dis- 
dained, if  not  actually  rejected,  by  Louis,  soon  after  married 
her  first-intended  husband,  Maximilian  of  Austria,  son  of  the 
emperor  Frederick  III. ;  a  prince  so  absolutely  destitute,  in 
consequence  of  his  father's  parsimony,  that  she  was  obliged 
to  borrow  money  from  the  towns  of  Flanders  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  his  suite.*  Nevertheless  he  seemed  equally  ac- 
ceptable to  his  bride  and  to  his  new  subjects.  They  not  only 
supplied  all  his  wants,  but  enabled  him  to  maintain  the  war 
against  Louis  XL,  whom  they  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Guine- 
gate  in  Picardy,  and  forced  to  make  peace  on  more  favorable 
terms  than  they  had  hoped  for.  But  these  wealthy  provinces 
were  not  more  zealous  for  the  national  defence,  than  bent  on 
the  maintenance  of  their  local  privileges,  which  Maximilian 
little  understood,  and  sympathized  with  less.  He  was  bred 
in  the  school  of  absolute  despotism ;  and  his  duchess  having 
met  with  a  too  early  death  by  a  fall  from  her  horse  in  the 
year  1484,  he  could  not  even  succeed  in  obtaining  tlie  nomina- 
tion of  guardian  to  his  own  children  without  passing  through 
a  year  of  civil  war.  His  power  being  almost  nominal  in  the 
northern  provinces,  he  vainly  attempted  to  suppress  the 
violence  of  the  factions  of  Hoeks  and  Kaabeljauws.  In  Flan- 
ders his  authority  was  openly  resisted.  The  turbulent  towns 
of  that  country,  and  particularly  Bruges,  taking  umbrage  at 
a  government  half  German  half  Burgundian,  and  altogether 
hateful  to  the  people,  rose  up  against  Maximilian,  seized  on 
his  person,  imprisoned  him  in  a  house  wliich  still  exists,  and 
put  to  death  his  most  faithful  followers.  But  the  fury  of 
Ghent  and  other  places  becoming  still  more  outrageous, 
Maximilian  asked  as  a  favor  from  his  rebel  subjects  of  Bruges 
to  be  guarded  while  a  prisoner  by  them  alone. f  He  was  then 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  all  Europe  became  interested  in  his 
fate.  The  pope  addressed  a  brief  to  the  to\vn  of  Bruges, 
demanding  his  deliverance.  But  the  burghers  were  as  inflexi- 
ble as  factious;  and  they  at  length  released  him,  but  not 
until  they  had  concluded  with  liim  and  the  assembled  states  a 

*  Comines,  t.  vi.  t  Heuterus,  1.  iii. 


64  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1493. 

treaty,  which  most  amply  secured  the  enjoyment  of  their 
privileges  and  the  pardon  of  their  rebellion. 

But  these  kind  of  compacts  were  never  observed  by  the 
princes  of  those  days  beyond  the  actual  period  of  their  capa- 
city to  violate  them.  The  emperor  having  entered  the 
Netherlands  at  the  head  of  40,000  men,  Maximilian,  so  sup- 
ported, soon  showed  his  contempt  for  the  obligations  he  had 
sworn  to,  and  had  recourse  to  force  for  the  extension  of  his 
authority.  The  valor  of  the  Flemings  and  the  military  talents 
of  their  leader,  Philip  of  Cleves,  thwarted  all  his  projects, 
and  a  new  compromise  was  entered  into.  Flanders  paid  a 
large  subsidy,  and  held  fast  her  rights.  The  German  troops 
were  sent  into  Holland,  and  e^r^ ployed  for  the  extinction  of 
the  Hoeks ;  who,  as  they  formed  by  far  the  weaker  faction, 
were  now  soon  destroyed.  That  province,  which  had  been 
so  long  distracted  by  its  intestine  feuds,  and  which  had  con- 
sequently played  but  an  insignificant  part  in  the  transactions 
of  the  Netherlands,  now  resumed  its  place ;  and  acquired 
thenceforth  new  honor,  till  it  at  length  came  to  figure  in  all 
the  importance  of  historical  distinction. 

The  situation  of  the  Netherlands  was  now  extremely  pre- 
carious and  difficult  to  manage,  during  the  unstable  sway  of 
a  government  so  weak  as  Maximilian's.  But  he  having  suc- 
ceeded his  father  on  the  imperial  throne  in  1493,  and  his 
son  Philip  having  been  proclaimed  the  following  year  duke 
and  count  of  the  various  provinces  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  a 
more  pleasing  prospect  w^as  offered  to  the  people.  Philip, 
young,  handsome,  and  descended  by  his  mother  from  the  an- 
cient sovereigns  of  the  country,  was  joj^fully  hailed  by  all  the 
towns.  He  did  not  belie  the  hopes  so  enthusiastically  ex- 
pressed. He  had  the  good  sense  to  renounce  all  pretensions 
to  Friesland,  the  fertile  source  of  many  preceding  quarrels 
and  sacrifices.  He  re-established  the  ancient  commercial 
relations  with  England,  to  which  country  Maximilian  had 
given  mortal  oflTence  by  sustaining  the  imposture  of  Perkin 
Warbeck.  Philip  also  consulted  the  states-general  on  his 
projects  of  a  double  alliance  between  himself  and  his  sister 
with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ferdinand  king  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  queen  of  Castile ;  and  from  this  wise  precaution  the 
project  soon  became  one  of  national  partiality  instead  of  pri- 
vate or  personal  interest.  In  this  manner  complete  harmony 
was  established  between  the  young  prince  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Netherlands.  All  the  ills  produced  by  civil  war 
disappeared  with  immense  rapidity  in  Flanders  and  Brabant, 
as  soon  as  peace  was  thus  consolidated.  Even  Holland,  though 
it  had  particularly  felt  the  scourge  of  these  dissensions,  and 


1493.  PHILIP    THE    FAIR.  65 

suffered  severely  from  repeated  inundations,  began  to  recover. 
Yet  for  all  this,  Philip  can  be  scarcely  called  a  good  prince : 
his  merits  were  negative  rather  than  real.  But  that  sufficed 
for  the  nation ;  which  found  in  tlie  nullity  of  its  sovereign  no 
obstacle  to  the  resumption  of  that  prosperous  career  which 
had  been  checked  by  the  despotism  of  the  house  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  the  attempts  of  Maximilian  to  continue  the  same 
system. 

The  reign  of  Philip,  unfortunately  a  short  one,  was  ren- 
dered remarkable  by  two  intestine  quarrels ;  one  in  Fries- 
land,  the  other  in  Guelders.  The  Frisons,  who  had  been  so 
isolated  from  the  more  important  affairs  of  Europe  that  they 
were  in  a  manner  lost  siglit  of  by  history  for  several  centu- 
ries, had  nevertheless  their  full  share  of  domestic  disputes ; 
too  long,  too  multifarious,  and  too  minute,  to  allow  us  to  give 
more  than  this  brief  notice  of  their  existence.  But  finally, 
about  the  period  of  Philip's  accession,  eastern  Friesland  had 
chosen  for  its  count  a  gentleman  of  the  country  surnamed 
Edzart,  who  fixed  the  head-quarters  of  his  military  govern- 
ment at  Embden.  The  sight  of  such  an  elevation  in  an  in- 
dividual whose  pretensions  he  thought  far  inferior  to  his  own, 
induced  Albert  of  Saxony,  who  had  well  served  Maximilian 
against  the  refractory  Flemings,  to  demand  as  his  reward  the 
title  of  stadtholder  or  hereditary  governor  of  Friesland.  But 
it  was  far  easier  for  the  emperor  to  accede  to  this  request 
than  for  his  favorite  to  put  the  grant  into  effect.  The  Fri- 
sons, true  to  their  old  character,  held  firm  to  their  privileges, 
and  fought  for  their  maintenance  with  heroic  courage.  Al- 
bert, furious  at  this  resistance,  had  the  horrid  barbarity  to 
cause  to  be  impaled  the  chief  burghers  of  the  town  of  Leu- 
waarden,  which  he  had  taken  by  assault.*  But  he  himself 
died  in  the  year  1500,  without  succeeding  in  his  projects  of 
an  ambition  unjust  in  its  principle  and  atrocious  in  its  prac- 
tice. 

The  war  of  Guelders  was  of  a  totally  different  nature.  In 
this  case  it  was  not  a  question  of  popular  resistance  to  a  tyr- 
annical nomination,  but  of  patriotic  fidelity  to  the  reigning 
family.  Adolphus,  the  duke  who  had  dethroned  his  father, 
had  died  in  Flanders,  leaving  a  son  who  had  been  brought  up 
almost  a  captive  as  long  as  Maximilian  governed  the  states 
of  his  inheritance.  This  young  man,  called  Charles  of  Eg- 
mont,  and  who  is  honored  in  the  history  of  his  country  under 
the  title  of  the  Achilles  of  Guelders,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French  during  the  combat  in  which  he  made  his  first 

,*  Beninga,  Hist.  Van  Oost  Frise. 

F2 


66  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1500. 

essay  in  arms.  The  town  of  Guelders  unanimously  joined 
to  pay  his  ransom ;  and  as  soon  as  he  was  at  liberty,  they  one 
and  all  proclaimed  him  duke.  The  emperor  Philip  and  the 
Germanic  diet  in  vain  protested  against  this  measure,  and 
declared  Charles  a  usurper.  The  spirit  of  justice  and  of 
liberty  spoke  more  loudly  than  the  thunders  of  their  ban  ;  and 
the  people  resolved  to  support  to  the  last  this  scion  of  an  an- 
cient race,  glorious  in  much  of  its  conduct,  though  often 
criminal  in  many  of  its  members.  Charles  of  Egmont  found 
faithful  friends  in  his  devoted  subjects ;  and  he  maintained 
his  rights,  sometimes  witli,  sometimes  without,  the  assistance 
of  France, — making  up  for  his  want  of  numbers  by  energy 
and  enterprise.  We  cannot  follow  this  warlike  prince  in  the 
long  series  of  adventures  which  consolidated  his  power;  nor 
stop  to  depict  his  daring  adherents  on  land,  who  caused  the 
whole  of  Holland  to  tremble  at  their  deeds  ;  nor  his  pirates — 
the  chief  of  whom,  Long  Peter,  called  himself  king  of  the 
Zuyder  Zee.  But  amidst  all  the  consequent  troubles  of  such 
a  struggle,  it  is  marvellous  to  find  Charles  of  Egmont  up- 
holding his  country  in  a  state  of  high  prosperity,  and  leaving 
it  at  his  death  almost  as  rich  as  Holland  itself  f 

The  incapacity  of  Philip  the  Fair  doubtless  contributed  to 
cause  him  the  loss  of  this  portion  of  his  dominions.  This 
prince,  after  his  first  acts  of  moderation  and  good  sense,  was 
remarkable  only  as  being  the  father  of  Charles  V.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  worn  out  in  undignified  pleasures ; 
and  he  died  almost  suddenly,  in  the  year  1506,  at  Burgos  in 
Castile,  whither  he  liad  repaired  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  brother- 
in-law,  the  king  of  Spain. 

t  Van  Meteren, 


I 


1508.  MARGARET   OF    AUSTRIA.  67 

CHAP.  VI. 

1506—1555. 

FROM  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  MARGARET  OF  AUSTRIA  TO  THE  ABDI- 
CATION OF  THE  EMPEROR  CHARLES  V. 

Philip  being  dead,  and  his  wife,  Joanna  of  Spain,  having- 
become  mad  from  grief  at  his  loss,  after  nearly  losing  her 
senses  from  jealousy  during  his  life,  the  regency  of  the  Neth- 
erlands reverted  to  Maximilian,  who  immediately  named  his 
daughter  Margaret  governant  of  the  country.  This  prmcess, 
scarcely  twenty-seven  years  of  age,  had  been,  like  the  cele- 
brated Jacqueline  of  Bavaria,  already  three  times  married, 
and  was  now  again  a  widow.  Her  first  husband,  Charles 
VIII.  of  France,  had  broken  from  his  contract  of  marriage 
before  its  consummation ;  her  second,  the  Infant  of  Spain, 
died  immediately  after  their  union ;  and  her  third,  the  duke 
of  Savoy,  left  her  again  a  widow  after  three  years  of  wedded 
life.  She  was  a  woman  of  talent  and  courage ;  both  proved 
by  the  couplet  she  composed  for  her  own  epitaph,  at  the  very 
moment  of  a  dangerous  accident  which  happened  during  her 
journey  into  Spain  to  join  her  second  affianced  spouse.*  She 
was  received  with  the  greatest  joy  by  the  people  of  the 
Netherlands;  and  she  governed  them  as  peaceably  as  cir- 
cumstances allowed.  Supported  by  England,  she  firmly 
maintained  her  authority  against  the  threats  of  France ;  and 
she  carried  on  in  person  all  the  negotiations  between  Louis 
XII.,  Maximilian,  the  pope  Jules  IL,  and  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon,  for  the  famous  league  of  Venice.  These  negotiations 
took  place  in  1508,  at  Cambray ;  where  Margaret,  if  we  are 
to  credit  an  expression  to  that  effect  in  one  of  her  letters,! 
was  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  having  serious  differ- 
ences with  the  cardinal  of  Amboise,  minister  of  Louis  XII. 
But,  besides  her  attention  to  the  interests  of  her  father  on 
this  important  occasion,  she  also  succeeded  in  repressing  the 
rising  pretensions  of  Charles  of  Egmont ;  and,  assisted  by 
the  interference  of  the  king  of  France,  she  obliged  him  to 
give  up  some  places  in  Holland  which  he  illegally  held. 


*  Ci-git  Margot  la  gente  demoiselle, 
Qui  eut  deux  maris,  et  si  mouiut  pucelle. 
Here  gentle  Margot  quietly  is  laid, 
Who  had  two  husbands,  and  yet  died  a  maid. 

t  Lettres  dc  Louis  XII.  t.  i.  p.  12-2. 


68  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1515. 

From  this  period  the  alliance  between  England  and  Spain 
raised  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  the  Netherlands  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity, 
while  the  northern  parts  of  the  country  were  still  kept  down 
by  their  various  dissensions.  Holland  was  at  war  with  the 
Hanseatic  towns.  The  Prisons  continued  to  struggle  for 
freedom  against  the  heirs  of  Albert  of  Saxony.  Utrecht 
was  at  variance  with  its  bishop,  and  finally  recognized  Charles 
of  Egmont  as  its  protector.  The  consequence  of  all  these 
causes  was  that  the  south  took  the  start  in  a  course  of  pros- 
perity, which  was,  however,  soon  to  become  common  to  the 
whole  nation, 

A  new  rupture  with  France,  in  1513,  united  Maximilian, 
Margaret,  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  in  one  common  cause. 
An  English  and  Belgian  army,  in  which  Maximilian  figured 
as  a  spectator  (taking  care  to  be  paid  by  England),  marched 
for  the  destruction  of  Therouenne,  and  defeated  and  dispersed 
the  French  at  the  battle  of  Spurs.  But  Louis  XII.  soon  per- 
suaded Henry  to  make  a  separate  peace ;  and  the  unconquer- 
able duke  of  Guelders  made  Margaret  and  the  emperor  pay 
the  penalty  of  their  success  against  France.  He  pursued  his 
victories  in  Friesland,  and  forced  the  country  to  recognize 
him  as  stadtholder  of  Groningen,  its  chief  town ;  while  the 
duke  of  Saxony  at  length  renounced  to  another  his  unjust 
claim  on  a  territory  which  ingulfed  both  his  armies  and  his 
treasure. 

About  the  same  epoch  (1515,)  young  Charles,  son  of  Philip 
the  Fair,  having  just  attained  his  fifteenth  year,  was  inaugu- 
rated duke  of  Brabant  and  count  of  Flanders  and  Holland, 
having  purchased  the  presumed  right  of  Saxony  to  the  sove- 
reignty of  Friesland.  In  the  following  year  he  was  recog- 
nized as  prince  of  Castile,  in  right  of  his  mother,  who  asso- 
ciated him  with  herself  in  the  royal  power, — a  step  which 
soon  lefl  her  merely  the  title  of  queen.  Charles  procured  the 
nomination  of  bishop  of  Utrecht  for  Philip,  bastard  of  Bur- 
gundy, which  made  that  province  completely  dependent  on 
him.  But  this  event  was  also  one  of  general  and  lasting  im- 
portance on  another  account.  This  Philip  of  Burgundy  was 
deeply  affected  by  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  which 
had  burst  forth  in  Germany.  He  held  in  abhorrence  the  su- 
perstitious observances  of  the  Romish  church,  and  set  his 
face  against  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  His  example  soon 
influenced  his  whole  diocese,  and  the  new  notions  on  points 
of  religion  became  rapidly  popular.  It  was  chiefly,  however, 
in  Friesland  that  the  people  embraced  the  opinions  of  Luther, 
which  were  quite  conformable  to  many  of  the  local  customs 


1515.     TROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  69 

of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The  celebrated  Edzard 
count  of  eastern  Friesland  openly  adopted  the  Reformation. 
While  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  without  actually  pronouncingf 
himself  a  disciple  of  Lutheranism,  effected  more  than  all  its 
advocates  to  throw  the  abuses  of  Catholicism  into  discredit. 

We  may  here  remark  that,  during  the  government  of  the 
house  of  Burgundy,  the  clergy  of  the  Netherlands  had  fallen 
into  considerable  disrepute.  Intrigue  and  court  favor  alone 
had  the  disposal  of  the  benefices ;  while  the  career  of  com- 
merce was  open  to  the  enterprise  of  every  spirited  and  inde- 
pendent competitor.  The  Reformation,  therefore,  in  the  first 
instance  found  but  a  slight  obstacle  in  the  opposition  of  a  sla- 
vish and  ignorant  clergy,  and  its  progress  was  all  at  once  pro- 

*  digious.  The  refusal  of  the  dignity  of  emperor  by  Frederick 
"  the  v/ise,"  duke  of  Saxony,  to  whom  it  was  offered  by  the 
electors,  was  also  an  event  highly  favorable  to  the  new  opin- 

,  ions ;  for  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  Charles,  already  king  of 
Spain  and  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands,  both  clauning  the 
succession  to  the  empire,*  a  sort  of  interregnum  deprived  the 

i  disputed  dominions  of  a  chief  who  might  lay  the  heavy  hand 
of  power  on  the  new-springing  doctrines  of  Protestantism. 
At  length  the  intrigues  of  Charles,  and  his  pretensions  as 
grandson  of  Maximilian,  having  caused  him  to  be  chosen  em- 
peror, a  desperate  rivalry  resulted  between  him  and  the 
French  king,  which  for  a  while  absorbed  his  whole  attention 
and  occupied  all  his  power. 

From  the  earliest  appearance  of  the  Reformation,  the  young 
sovereign  of  so  many  states,  having  to  establish  his  authority 
at  the  two  extremities  of  Europe,  could  not  efficiently  occupy 
himself  in  resisting  the  doctrines  which,  despite  their  dis- 
honoring epithet  of  heresy,  were  doomed  so  soon  to  become 
orthodox  for  a  great  part  of  the  Continent.  While  Charles 
vigorously  put  down  the  revolted  Spaniards,  Luther  gained 
new  proselytes  in  Germany ;  so  that  the  very  greatness  of 
the  sovereignty  was  the  cause  of  his  impotency ;  and  while 
Charles's  extent  of  dominion  thus  fostered  the  growing  Re- 
formation, his  sense  of  honor  proved  the  safeguard  of  its  apos- 
tle. The  intrepid  Luther,  boldly  venturing  to  appear  and 
plead  its  cause  before  the  representative  power  of  Germany 
assembled  at  the  diet  of  Worms,  was  protected  by  the  guar- 
antee of  the  emperor  ;t  unlike  the  celebrated  and  unfortunate 
John  Huss,  who  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  confidence  and  the  bad 
faith  of  Sigismund,  in  the  year  1415. 

Charles  was  nevertheless  a  zealous  and  rigid  Catholic; 

*  Robertson.  J  Idem. 


70  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1525. 

and  in  the  Low  Countries,  where  his  authority  was  undis- 
puted, he  proscribed  the  heretics,  and  even  violated  the  privi- 
leges of  the  country  by  appointing  functionaries  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  their  pursuit  and  punishment.*  This  im- 
prudent stretch  of  power  fostered  a  rising  spirit  of  opposition ; 
for,  though  entertaining  the  best  disposition  to  their  young 
prince,  the  people  deeply  felt  and  loudly  complained  of  the 
government;  and  thus  the  germs  of  a  mighty  revolution 
gradually  began  to  be  developed. 

Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  had  been  rivals  for  dignity  and 
power,  and  they  now  became  implacable  personal  enemies. 
Young,  ambitious,  and  sanguine,  they  could  not,  without  re- 
ciprocal resentment,  pursue  in  the  same  field  objects  essen- 
tial to  both.  Charles,  by  a  short  but  timely  visit  to  England 
in  1520,  had  the  address  to  gain  over  to  his  cause  and  secure 
for  his  purpose  the  powerful  interest  of  cardinal  Wolsey,  and 
to  make  a  most  favorable  impression  on  Henry  VIII.  ;f  and 
thus  strengthened,  he  entered  on  the  struggle  against  his 
less  wily  enemy  with  infinite  advantage.  War  was  declared 
on  frivolous  pretexts  in  1521.  The  French  sustained  it  for 
some  time  with  great  valor;  but  Francis  being  obstinately 
bent  on  the  conquest  of  the  Milanais,  his  reverses  secured 
the  triumph  of  his  rival,  and  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  im- 
perial troops  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525.  Charles's  domi- 
nions in  the  Netherlands  suflTered  severely  from  the  naval 
operations  during  the  war ;  for  the  French  cruisers  having, 
on  repeated  occasions,  taken,  pillaged,  and  almost  destroyed 
the  principal  resources  of  the  herring  fishery,  Holland  and 
Zealand  felt  considerable  distress,  w^hich  was  still  further 
augmented  by  the  famine  which  desolated  these  provinces  in 
1524. 

While  such  calamities  afflicted  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Netherlands,  Flanders  and  Brabant  continued  to  flourish,  in 
spite  of  temporary  embarrassments.  The  bishop  of  Utrecht 
having  died,  his  successor  found  himself  engaged  in  a  hope- 
less quarrel  with  his  new  diocese,  already  more  than  half 
converted  to  Protestantism ;  and  to  gain  a  triumph  over  these 
enemies,  even  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  dignity,  he  ceded  to  the 
emperor  in  1527  the  whole  of  his  temporal  power.  The  duke 
of  Guelders,  who  then  occupied  the  city  of  Utrecht,  redou- 
bled his  hostility  at  this  intelligence ;  and  after  having  rav- 
aged the  neighboring  country,  he  did  not  lay  down  his  arms 
till  the  subsequent  year,  having  first  procured  an  honorable 
and  advantageous  peace.     One  year  more  saw  the  term  of 

*  Meteren,  1.  i.  f  Robertson. 


1534.  THE   ANABAPTISTS.  71 

this  long-continued  state  of  warfare  by  the  peace  of  Cambray, 
between  Charles  and  Francis,  which  was  signed  on  the  5th 
of  August,  1529.* 

This  peace  once  concluded,  the  industry  and  perseverance 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Netherlands  repaired  in  a  short  time 
the  evils  caused  by  so  many  wars,  excited  by  the  ambition  of 
princes,  but  in  scarcely  any  instance  for  the  interest  of  the 
country.     Little,  however,  was  wanting  to  endanger  this 
tranquillity,  and  to  excite  the  people  against  each  other  on 
the  score  of  religious  dissension.     The  sect  of  Anabaptists, 
whose  wild  opinions  were  subversive  of  all  principles  of  social 
order  and  every  sentiment  of  natural  decency,  had  its  birth 
in  Germany,  and  found  many  proselytes  in  the  Netherlands. 
John  Bokelszoon,  a  tailor  of  Leyden,  one  of  the  number, 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  Jerusalem;   and 
making  himself  master  of  the  town  of  Munster,  sent  out  his 
disciples  to  preach  in  the  neighboring  countries.     Mary,  sis- 
ter of  Charles  V.,  and  queen-dowager  of  Hungary,  the  gov- 
ernant  of  the  Netherlands,  proposed  a  crusade  against  this 
fanatic ;  which  was,  however,  totally  discountenanced  by  the 
states.     Encouraged  by  impunity,  whole  troops  of  these  in- 
furiate sectarians,  from  the  very  extremities  of  Hainault,  put 
themselves  into  motion  for  Munster;   and  notwithstanding 
the  colds  of  February,  they  marched  along,  quite  naked,  ac- 
cording to  the  system  of  their  sectf  The  frenzy  of  these  fanat- 
ics being  increased  by  persecution,  they  projected  attempts 
against  several  towns,  and  particularly  against  Amsterdam. 
They  were  easily  defeated,  and  massacred  without  mercy ; 
and  it  was  only  by  multiplied  and  horrible  executions  that 
,  their  numbers  were  at  length  diminished.     John  Bakelszoon 
held  out  at  Munster,  which  was  besieged  by  the  bishop  and 
t  the  neighboring  princes.     This  profligate  fanatic,  who  had 
1  married  no  less  than  seventeen  women,  had  gained  consider- 
t  ible  influence  over  the  insensate  multitude  ;  but  he  was  at 
.  tength  taken  and  imprisoned  in  an  iron  cage, — an  event 
f  ivhich  undeceived  the  greatest  number  of  those  whom  he  had 
5  persuaded  of  his  superhuman  powers. | 
e     The  prosperity  of  the  southern  provinces  proceeded  rapidly 
e  ind  uninterruptedly,  in  consequence  of  the  great  and  valua- 
)le  traffic  of  the  merchants  of  Flanders  and  Brabant,  who 
exchanged  their  goods  of  native  manufacture  for  the  riches 
rawn  from  America  and  India  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
uese.    Antwerp  had  succeeded  to  Bruges  as  the  general 


*  Robertson.  f  L.  Hortens.  de  Anab. 

X  Hist.  Anabapt, 


72  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1539. 

mart  of  commerce,  and  was  the  most  opulent  town  of  the 
north  of  Europe.  The  expenses,  estimated  at  130,000  golden 
crowns,*  which  this  city  voluntarily  incurred,  to  do  honor  to 
the  visit  of  Philip,  son  of  Charles  V.,  are  cited  as  a  proof  of 
its  wealth.  The  value  of  the  wool  annually  imported  for 
manufacture  into  the  Low  Countries  from  England  and  Spain 
was  calculated  at  4,000,000  pieces  of  gold.  Their  herring 
fishery  was  unrivalled  ;  for  even  the  Scotch,  on  whose  coasts 
these  fish  were  taken,  did  not  attempt  a  competition  with 
the  Zealanders.f  But  the  chief  seat  of  prosperity  was  the 
south.  Flanders  alone  was  taxed  for  one-third  of  the  general 
burdens  of  the  state.  Brabant  paid  only  one-seventh  less 
than  Flanders.  So  that  these  two  rich  provinces  contributed 
thirteen  out  of  twenty-one  parts  of  the  general  contribution ; 
and  all  the  rest  combined,  but  eight.  A  search  for  further 
or  minuter  proofs  of  the  comparative  state  of  the  various  di- 
visions of  the  country  would  be  superfluous. 

The  perpetual  quarrels  of  Charles  V.  with  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  of  Guelders  led,  as  may  be  supposed,  to  a  repeated 
state  of  exhaustion,  which  forced  the  princes  to  pause,  till 
the  people  recovered  strength  and  resources  for  each  fresh 
encounter.  Charles  rarely  appeared  in  the  Netherlands; 
fixing  his  residence  chiefly  in  Spain,  and  leaving  to  his  sister 
the  regulation  of  those  distant  provinces.  One  of  his  occa- 
sional visits  was  for  the  purpose  of  inflicting  a  terrible  exam- 
ple upon  them.  The  people  of  Ghent,  suspecting  an  im- 
proper or  improvident  application  of  the  funds  they  had 
furnished  for  a  new  campaign,  offered  themselves  to  march 
against  the  French,  instead  of  being  forced  to  pay  their  quota 
of  some  further  subsidy.  The  government  having  rejected 
this  proposal,  a  sedition  was  the  result,  at  the  moment  when 
Charles  and  Francis  already  negotiated  one  of  their  tempo- 
rary reconciliations.  On  this  occasion,  Charles  formed  the 
daring  resolution  of  crossing  the  kingdom  of  France,  to 
promptly  take  into  his  own  hands  the  settlement  of  this  af- 
fair— trusting  to  the  generosity  of  his  scarcely  reconciled 
enemy  not  to  abuse  the  confidence  with  which  he  risked 
himself  in  his  power.  Ghent,  taken  by  surprise,  did  not  dare 
to  oppose  the  entrance  of  the  emperor,  when  he  appeared 
before  the  walls ;  and  the  city  was  punished  with  extreme 
severity.  Twenty-seven  leaders  of  the  sedition  were  be 
headed ;  the  principal  privileges  of  the  city  were  withdrawn  j 
and  a  citadel  built  to  hold  it  in  check  for  the  future.  Charles! 
met  with  neither  opposition  nor  complaint.     The  province 


*  Guicciardini,  Descriptio  Belgii.  j  Vandcrgoes,  Regist.  t.  i. 


L 


1555.  ABDICATION   OF   CHARLES.  73 

had  so  prospered  under  his  sway,  and  was  so  flattered  by  the 
greatness  of  the  sovereign,  who  was  born  in  the  town  he  so 
severely  punished,  that  his  acts  of  despotic  harshness  were 
borne  without  a  murmur.  But  in  the  north  the  people  did 
not  view  his  measures  so  complacently :  and  a  wide  separa- 
tion in  interests  and  opinions  became  manifest  in  the  different 
divisions  of  the  nation. 

Yet  the  Dutch  and  the  Zealanders  signalized  themselves 
beyond  all  his  other  subjects  on  the  occasion  of  two  expedi- 
tions which  Charles  undertook  against  Tunis  and  Algiers. 
The  two  northern  provinces  furnished  a  greater  number  of 
ships  than  the  united  quotas  of  all  the  rest  of  his  states.*  But 
though  Charles's  gratitude  did  not  lead  him  to  do  any  thing 
in  return  as  peculiarly  favorable  to  these  provinces,  he  ob- 
tained for  them  nevertheless  a  great  advantage  in  making 
himself  master  of  Friesland  and  Guelders  on  the  death  of 
Charles  of  Egmont.  His  acquisition  of  the  latter,  which  took 
place  in  1543,  put  an  end  to  the  domestic  wars  of  the  north- 
ern provinces.  From  that  period  they  might  fairly  look  for 
a  futurity  of  union  and  peace ;  and  thus  the  latter  years  of 
Charles  promised  better  for  his  country  than  his  early  ones, 
though  he  obtained  less  success  in  his  new  wars  with  France, 
which  were  not,  however,  signalized  by  any  grand  event  on 
either  side. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  career,  Charles  redoubled  his  se- 
verities against  the  Protestants,  and  even  introduced  a  modi- 
fied species  of  inquisition  into  the  Netherlands,  but  with  little 
effect  towards  the  suppression  of  the  reformed  doctrines.  The 
i  misunderstandings  between  his  only  son  Philip  and  Mary  of 
I  England,  whom  he  had  induced  him  to  marry,  and  the  una- 
miable  disposition  of  this  young  prince,  tormented  him  al- 
,  most  as  much  as  he  was  humiliated  by  the  victories  of  Henry 
,  II.  of  France,  the  successor  of  Francis  I.,  and  the  successful 
I  dissimulation  of  Maurice  elector  of  Saxony,  by  whom  he  was 
I  completely  outwitted,  deceived,  and  defeated.     Impelled  by 
j  these  motives,  and  others,  perhaps,  which  are  and  must  ever 
j  remain  unknown,  Charles  at  length  decided  on  abdicating  the 
I  whole  of  his  immense  possessions.     He  chose  the  city  of 
I  Brussels  as  the  scene  of  the  solemnity,  and  the  day  fixed  for 
it  was  the  25th  of  October,  1555.t   It  took  place  accordingly, 
in  the  presence  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
the  dowager  queens  of  France  and  Hungary,  the  duchess  of 
Lorraine,  and  an  immense  assemblage  of  nobility  from  vari- 
ous countries.     Charles  resigned  the  empire  to  his  brother 

^-*  Chron.  van  Zeeland.  f  Vandervynct,  t.  i.  p.  107. 


74  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1555 

Ferdinand,  already  king  of  the  Romans ;  and  all  the  rest  of 
his  ,dominions  to  his  son.  Soon  after  the  ceremony,  Charles 
embarked  from  Zealand  on  his  voyage  to  Spain.  He  retired 
to  the  monastery  of  St.  Justus,  near  the  town  of  Placentia, 
in  Estremadura.  He  entered  this  retreat  in  February,  1556, 
and  died  there  on  the  21st  of  September,  1558,  in  the  59th 
year  of  his  age.  The  last  six  months  of  his  existence,  con- 
trasted with  the  daring  vigor  of  his  former  life,  formed  a 
melancholy  picture  of  timidity  and  superstition.* 

The  whole  of  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  being  now 
for  the  first  time  united  under  one  sovereign,  such  a  junction 
marks  the  limits  of  a  second  epoch  in  their  history.  It  would 
be  a  presumptuous  and  vain  attempt  to  trace,  in  a  compass  so 
confined  as  ours,  the  various  changes  in  manners  and  cus- 
toms which  arose  in  these  countries  during  a  period  of  one 
thousand  years.  The  extended  and  profound  remarks  of  many 
celebrated  writers  on  the  state  of  Europe  from  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  power  to  the  epoch  at  which  we  are  now  arrived 
must  be  referred  to,  to  judge  of  the  gradual  progress  of  civili- 
zation through  the  gloom  of  the  dark  ages,  till  the  dawn  of 
enlightment  which  led  to  the  grand  system  of  European  poli- 
tics commenced  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V.f  The  amaz- 
ing increase  of  commerce  was,  above  all  other  considerations, 
the  cause  of  the  growth  of  liberty  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
Reformation  opened  the  minds  of  men  to  that  intellectual 
freedom,  without  which  political  enfranchisement  is  a  worth- 
less privilege.  The  invention  of  printing  opened  a  thousand 
channels  to  the  flow  of  erudition  and  talent,  and  sent  them 
out  from  the  reservoirs  of  individual  possession  to  fertilize  the 
whole  domain  of  human  nature.  War,  which  seems  to  be  an 
instinct  of  man,  and  which  particular  instances  of  heroism 
often  raise  to  the  dignity  of  a  passion,  was  reduced  to  a  sci- 
ence, and  made  subservient  to  those  great  principles  of  policy 
in  which  society  began  to  perceive  its  only  chance  of  durable 
good.  Manufactures  attained  a  state  of  high  perfection,  and 
went  on  progressively  with  the  growth  of  wealth  and  luxury. 
The  opulence  of  the  towns  of  Brabant  and  Flanders  was 
without  any  previous  example  in  the  state  of  Europe.  A 
merchant  of  Bruges  took  upon  himself  alone  the  security  for 
the  ransom  of  John  the  Fearless,  taken  at  the  battle  of  Nico- 
polis,  amounting  to  200,000  ducats.  A  provost  of  Valencien- 
nes repaired  to  Paris  at  one  of  the  great  fairs  periodically 
held  there,  and  purchased  on  his  own  account  every  article 
that  was  for  sale.     At  a  repast  given  by  one  of  the  counts  of 

*  Robertson.  f  See  Gibbon,  Robertson,  &c. 


1559.     Philip's  intrigues  for  despotic  power.       83 

completely  broken  up  and  scattered  in  small  bodies  over  the 
country.  The  whole  of  this  force,  so  redoubtable  to  the 
fears  of  despotism,  consisted  of  only  3000  cavalry.  It  was 
now  divided  into  fourteen  companies  (or  squadrons  in  the 
modern  phraseology,)  under  the  command  of  as  many  inde- 
pendent chiefs,  so  as  to  leave  little  chance  of  any  principle 
of  union  reigning-  among  them.  But  the  German  and  Span- 
ish troops  in  Philip's  pay  were  cantoned  on  the  frontiers, 
ready  to  stifle  any  incipient  effort  in  opposition  to  his  plans. 
In  addition  to  these  imposing  means  for  their  execution,  he 
had  secured  a  still  more  secret  and  more  powerful  support ; 
— a  secret  article  in  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  obliged 
the  king  of  France  to  assist  him  with  the  whole  armies  of 
France  against  his  Belgian  subjects,  should  they  prove  re- 
fractory. Thus  the  late  war,  of  which  the  Netherlands  had 
borne  all  the  weight,  and  earned  all  the  glory,  only  brought 
about  the  junction  of  the  defeated  enemy  with  their  own 
king  for  the  extinction  of  their  national  independence. 

To  complete  the  execution  of  this  system  of  perfidy,  Philip 
convened  an  assembly  of  all  the  states  at  Ghent,  in  the 
month  of  July,  1559.  This  meeting  of  the  representatives 
of  the  three  orders  of  the  state  offered  no  apparent  ob- 
stacle to  Philip's  views.  The  clergy,  alarmed  at  the  pro- 
gress of  the  new  doctrines,  gathered  more  closely  round 
the  government  of  which  they  required  the  support.  The 
nobles  had  lost  much  of  their  ancient  attachment  to  liberty; 
and  had  become,  in  various  ways,  dependent  on  the  royal 
favor.  Many  of  the  first  families  were  then  represented  by 
men  possessed  rather  of  courage  and  candor  than  of  foresight 
and  sagacity.  That  of  Nassau,  the  most  distinguished  of  all, 
seemed  the  least  interested  in  the  national  cause.  A  great 
part  of  its  possessions  were  in  Germany  and  France,  where 
it  had  recently  acquired  the  sovereig-n  principality  of  Orange. 
It  was  only  from  the  third  order — that  of  the  conijcQops — that 
Philip  had  to  expect  any  opposition.  Already,  during  the 
war,  it  had  shown  some  discontent,  and  had  insisted  on  the 
nomination  of  commissioners  to  control  the  accounts  and  the 
disbursements  of  the  subsidies.  But  it  seemed  improbable, 
that  among  this  class  of  men,  any  would  be  found  capable  of 
penetrating  the  manifold  combinations  of  the  king,  and  dis- 
concerting his  designs. 

Anthony  Perrenotte  de  Granvelle,  bishop  of  Arras,  who 
was  considered  as  Philip's  favorite  counsellor,  but  who  was 
in  reality  no  more  than  his  docile  agent,  was  commissioned  to 
address  the  assembly  in  the  name  of  his  master,  who  spoke 
only  Spanish.     His  oration  was  one  of  cautious  deception, 


84  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1559. 

and  contained  the  most  flattering"  assurances  of  Philip's  at- 
tachment to  the  people  of  the  Netherlands.  It  excused  the 
king  for  not  having  nominated  his  only  son  Don  Carlos  to 
reign  over  them  in  his  name ;  alleging,  as  a  proof  of  his  I 
royal  affection,  that  he  preferred  giving  them  as  governant  a 
Belgian  princess,  Madame  Marguerite  duchess  of  Parma, 
the  natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.  by  a  young  lady  a  native 
of  Audenarde.  Fair  promises  and  fine  words  were  thus  lav- 
ished in  profusion  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  deputies. 

But  notwithstanding  all  the  talent,  the  caution,  and  the 
mystery  of  Philip  and  his  minister,  there  was  among  the  no-, 
bles  one  man  who  saw  through  all.  This  individual,  endowed 
with  many  of  the  highest  attributes  of  political  genius,  and 
pre-eminently  with  judgment,  the  most  important  of  all,  en- 
tered fearlessly  into  the  contest  against  tyranny — despising 
every  personal  sacrifice  for  the  country's  good.  Without 
making  himself  suspiciously  prominent,  he  privately  warned 
some  members  of  the  states  of  the  coming  danger.  Those 
in  whom  he  confided  did  not  betray  the  trust.  They  spread 
among  the  other  deputies  the  alarm,  and  pointed  out  the 
danger  to  which  they  had  been  so  judiciously  awakened.  The 
consequence  was,  a  reply  to  Philip's  demand,  in  vague  and 
general  terms,  without  binding  the  nation  by  any  pledge ; 
and  an  unanimous  entreaty  that  he  would  diminish  the  taxes, 
withdraw  the  foreign  troops,  and  entrust  no  official  employ- 
ments to  any  but  natives  of  the  country.  The  object  of  this 
last  request  was  the  removal  of  Granvelle,  who  was  born  in 
Franche-Comte. 

Philip  was  utterly  astounded  at  all  this.  In  the  first  moment 
of  his  vexation  he  imprudently  cried  out,  "  Would  ye,  then, 
also  bereave  me  of  my  place ;  I,  who  am  a  Spaniard  ]"  But 
he  soon  recovered  his  self-command,  and  resumed  his  usual 
mask ;  expressed  his  regret  at  not  having  sooner  learned  the 
wishes  of  the  state ;  promised  to  remove  the  foreign  troops 
within  three  months ;  and  set  oflT  for  Zealand,  with  assumed 
composure,  but  filled  with  the  fury  of  a  discovered  traitor 
and  a  humiliated  despot. 

A  fleet  under  the  command  of  count  Horn,  the  admiral  of 
the  United  Provinces,  waited  at  Flessingue  to  form  his  escort 
to  Spain.  At  the  very  moment  of  his  departure,  William  of 
Nassau,  prince  of  Orange  and  governor  of  Zealand,  waited 
on  him  to  pay  his  official  respects.  The  king,  taking  him 
apart  from  the  other  attendant  nobles,  recommended  him  to 
hasten  the  execution  of  several  gentlemen  and  wealthy  citi- 
zens attached  to  the  newly  introduced  religious  opinions. 
Then,  quite  suddenly,  whether  in  the  random  impulse  of 


1559.  INCREASE    OF    COMMERCE.  85 

suppressed  rage,  or  that  his  piercing  glance  discovered  Wil- 
liam's secret  feelings  in  his  countenance,  he  accused  him 
with  having  been  the  means  of  thwarting  his  designs.  "  Sire," 
replied  Nassau,  "  it  was  the  work  of  the  national  states." — 
"  No !"  cried  Philip,  grasping  him  furiously  by  the  arm ;  "  it  was 
not  done  by  the  states,  but  by  you,  and  you  alone  !"* 

This  glorious  accusation  was  not  repelled.  He  who  had 
saved  his  country  in  unmasking  the  designs  of  its  tyrant,  ad- 
mitted by  his  silence  his  title  to  the  hatred  of  the  one  and  the 
gratitude  of  the  other.  On  the  20th  of  August,  Philip  em- 
barked and  set  sail ;  turning  his  back  for  ever  on  the  country 
which  offered  the  first  check  to  his  despotism ;  and,  after  a 
perilous  voyage,  he  arrived  in  that  which  permitted  a  free 
indulgence  to  his  ferocious  and  sanguinary  career. 

For  some  time  after  Philip's  departure,  the  Netherlands 
continued  to  enjoy  considerable  prosperity.     From  the  period 
of  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  commerce  and  navigation 
had  acquired  new  and  increasing  activity.     The  fisheries,  but 
particularly  that  of  herrings,  became  daily  more  important ; 
that  one  alone  occupying  2000  boats.     While  Holland,  Zea- 
I  land,  and  Friesland  made  this  progress  in  their  peculiar 
''  branches  of  industry,  the  southern  provinces  were  not  less 
,  active  or  successful.     Spain  and  the  colonies  offered  such  a 
I  mart  for  the  objects  of  their  manufacture,  that  in  a  single  year 
I  they  received  from  Flanders  fifty  large  ships,  filled  with  ar- 
ticles of  household  furniture  and  utensils.     The  exportation 
of  woollen  goods  amounted  to  enormous  sums.   Bruges  alone 
I  sold  annually  to  the  amount  of  4,000,000  florins  of  stuffs  of 
\  Spanish,  and  as  much  of  English,  wool ;  and  the  least  value 
I  of  the  florin  then  was  quadruple   its  present  worth.     The 
I  commerce  with  England  though  less  important  than  that  with 
j  Spain,  was  calculated  yearly  at  24,000,000  florins,  which  was 
j  chiefly  clear  profit  to  the  Netherlands,  as  their  exportations 
I  consisted  almost  entirely  of  objects  of  their  own  manufacture, 
j  Their  commercial  relations  with  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
i  Portugal,  and  the  Levant,  were  daily  increasing.     Antwerp 
jj  was  the  centre  of  this  prodigious  trade.    Several  sovereigns, 
ii  among  others  Elizabeth  of  England,  had  recognized  agents 
'  in  that  city,  equivalent  to  consuls  of  the  present  times;  and 
loans  of  immense  amount  were  frequently  negotiated  by 
them  with  wealthy  merchants,  who  furnished  them,  not  in 
negotiable  bills  or  for  unredeemable  debentures,  but  in  solid 
gold,  and  on  a  simple  acknowledgment. 

*  Schiller.  The  words  of  Philip  were  :  "  JVb,  no  los  cstados ;  ma  vos,  vos, 
vos!"  Vos  thus  used  in  Spanish  is  a  term  of  contempt,  equivalent  to  toi  in 
French. 

H 


86  HISTORY    OF  THE    NETHERLANDS.  1560. 

Flanders  and  Brabant  were  still  the  richest  and  most  flour- 
ishing" portions  of  the  state.  Some  municipal  fetes  given 
about  this  time  afford  a  notion  of  their  opulence.  On  one  of 
these  occasions  the  town  of  Mechlin  sent  a  deputation  to 
Antwerp,  consisting  of  326  horsemen  dressed  in  velvet  and 
satin  with  gold  and  silver  ornaments ;  while  those  of  Brus- 
sels consisted  of  340,  as  splendidly  equipped,  and  accompanied 
by  seven  huge  triumphal  chariots  and  seventy-eight  carriages 
of  various  constructions, — a  prodigious  number  for  those  days. . 

But  the  splendor  and  prosperity  which  thus  sprung  out  of 
the  national  industry  and  independence,  and  which  a  wise  or 
a  generous  sovereign  would  have  promoted,  or  at  least  have 
established  on  a  permanent  basis,  was  destined  speedily  to 
sink  beneath  the  bigoted  fury  of  Philip  II.  The  new  govern- 
ment which  he  had  established  was  most  ingeniously  adapted 
to  produce  every  imaginable  evil  to  the  state.  The  king, 
hundreds  of  leagues  distant,  could  not  himself  issue  an  order 
but  with  a  lapse  of  time  ruinous  to  any  object  of  pressing  im- 
portance. The  governant-general,  who  represented  him, 
having  but  a  nominal  authority,  was  forced  to  follow  her  in- 
structions, and  liable  to  have  all  her  acts  reversed  ;*  besides 
which,  she  had  the  king's  orders  to  consult  her  private  coun- 
cil on  al]  affairs  whatever,  and  the  council  of  state  on  any 
matter  of  paramount  importance.  These  two  councils,  how- 
ever, contained  the  elements  of  a  serious  opposition  to  the 
royal  projects,  in  the  persons  of  the  patriot  nobles  spruikled 
among  Philip's  devoted  creatures.  Thus  the  influence  of 
the  crown  was  oflen  thwarted,  if  not  actually  balanced ;  and 
the  proposals  which  emanated  from  it  frequently  opposed  by 
the  governant  herself.  She,  although  a  woman  of  masculine 
appearance  and  habits,f  was  possessed  of  no  strength  of 
mind.  Her  prevailing  sentiment  seemed  to  be  dread  of  tlie 
king ;  yet  she  was  at  times  influenced  by  a  sense  of  justice, 
and  by  the  remonstrances  of  the  well-judging  members  of  her 
councils.  But  these  were  not  all  the  difficulties  that  clogged 
the  machinery  of  the  state.  After  the  king,  the  government, 
and  the  councils,  had  deliberated  on  any  measure,  its  execu- 
tion rested  with  the  provincial  governors  or  stadtholders,  or 
the  magistrates  of  the  towns.  Almost  every  one  of  these, 
being  strongly  attached  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  nation, 
hesitated,  or  refused  to  obey  the  orders  conveyed  to  them, 
when  those  orders  appeared  illegal.  Some,  however,  yielded 
to  the  authority  of  the  government ;  so  it  often  happened  that 
an  edict,  which  in  one  district  was  carried  into  full  effect, 

♦  Vandervynct.  t  Strada. 


1561.         INEFFICIENCY    OF   THE    GOVERNMENT.  87 

was  in  others  deferred,  rejected,  or  violated,  in  a  way  pro- 
ductive of  great  confusion  in  the  public  affairs. 

Philip  was  conscious  that  he  had  himself  to  blame  for  the 
consequent  disorder.  In  nominating  the  members  of  the  two 
councils,  he  had  overreached  himself  in  his  plan  for  silently- 
sapping  the  liberty  that  was  so  obnoxious  to  his  designs.  But 
to  neutralize  the  influence  of  the  restive  members,  he  had 
left  Granyelle  the  first  place  in  the  administration.  This 
man,  an  immoral  ecclesiastic,  an  eloquent  orator,  a  supple 
courtier,  and  a  profound  politician,  bloated  with  pride,  envy, 
insolence,  and  vanity,  was  the  real  head  of  the  government.* 
Next  to  him  among  the  royalist  party  was  Viglius,  president 
of  the  privy-council,  an  erudite  schoolman,  attached  less  to 
the  broad  principles  of  justice  than  to  the  letter  of  the  laws, 
and  thus  carrying  pedantry  into  the  very  councils  of  the 
state.  Next  in  order  came  the  count  de  Berlaimont,  head  of 
the  financial  department, — a  stern  and  intolerant  satellite  of 
the  court,  and  a  furious  enemy  to  those  national  institutions 
which  operated  as  checks  upon  fraud.  These  three  individu- 
als formed  the  governant's  privy-council.  The  remaining 
creatures  of  the  king  were  mere  subaltern  agents. 

A  government  so  composed  could  scarcely  fail  to  excite 
discontent,  and  create  danger  to  the  public  weal.  The  first 
proof  of  incapacity  was  elicited  by  the  measures  required  for 
the  departure  of  the  Spanish  troops.  The  period  fixed  by  the 
king  had  already  expired,  and  these  obnoxious  foreigners 
were  still  in  the  country,  living  in  part  on  pillage,  and  each 
day  committing  some  new  excess.  Complaints  were  carried 
in  successive  gradation  from  the  government  to  the  council, 
and  from  the  council  to  the  king.  The  Spaniards  were  re- 
moved to  Zealand ;  but  instead  of  being  embarked  at  any  of 
its  ports,  they  were  detained  there  on  various  pretexts. 
Money,  ships,  or,  on  necessity,  a  wind,  was  professed  to  be 
still  wanting  for  their  final  removal,  by  those  who  found  ex- 
cuses for  delay  in  every  element  of  nature  or  subterfuge  of 
art.  In  the  mean  time  those  ferocious  soldiers  ravaged  a 
part  of  the  country.  The  simple  natives  at  length  declared 
they  would  open  the  sluices  of  their  dikes ;  preferring  to  be 
swallowed  by  the  waters  rather  than  remain  exposed  to  the 
cruelty  and  rapacity  of  those  Spaniards.!  Still  the  embarka- 
tion was  postponed ;  until  the  king,  requiring  his  troops  in 


*  ^^''^^^,.^  royalist,  a  jesiiit,  and  ;\^Vetore  a  fair  witne^^s  on  this  point, 
uses  the  following  words  in  portr.-"  ^,,^  character  of  this  odious  minis- 
ten    ^nir«7m  avtdum  inviduw^^J^     \^^^^^^^^^^  inter  principem  et  populos 


occulti  foventum.  .  'H^ 

t  Watson's  Life  of  Thilip  1.^ 


J 


88  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1561. 

Spain  for  some  domestic  project,  they  took  their  long-desired 
departure  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1561. 

The  public  discontent  at  this  just  cause  was  soon,  how- 
ever, overwhelmed  by  one  infinitely  more  important  and 
lasting.  The  Belgian  clergy  had  hitherto  formed  a  free  and 
powerful  order  in  the  state,  governed  and  represented  by 
four  bishops,  chosen  by  the  chapters  of  the  towns,  or  elected 
by  the  monks  of  the  principal  abbeys.  These  bishops,  pos- 
sessing an  independent  territorial  revenue,  and  not  directly 
subject  to  the  influence  of  the  crown,  had  interests  and  feel- 
ings in  common  with  the  nation.  But  Philip  had  prepared, 
and  the  pope  had  sanctioned,  the  new  system  of  ecclesiastical 
organization  before  alluded  to,  and  the  provisional  govern- 
ment now  put  it  into  execution.*  Instead  of  four  bishops,  it 
was  intended  to  appoint  eighteen,  their  nomination  being 
vested  in  the  king.  By  a  wily  system  of  trickery,  the  sub- 
serviency of  the  abbeys  was  also  aimed  at.  The  new  pre- 
lates, on  a  pretended  principle  of  economy,  were  endowed 
with  the  title  of  abbots  of  the  chief  monasteries  of  their 
respective  dioceses.  Thus  not  only  would  they  enjoy  the 
immense  wealth  of  these  establishments,  but  the  political 
rights  of  the  abbots  whom  they  were  to  succeed ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  ecclesiastical  order  become  gradually  repre- 
sented (after  the  death  of  the  then  living  abbots)  by  the 
creatures  of  the  crown. 

The  consequences  of  this  vital  blow  to  the  integrity  of  the 
national  institutions  were  evident;  and  the  indignation  of 
both  clergy  and  laity  was  universal.  Every  legal  means  of 
opposition  were  resorted  to,  but  the  people  were  without 
leaders ;  the  states  were  not  in  session.  While  the  authority 
of  the  pope  and  the  king  combined,  the  reverence  excited  by 
the  very  name  of  religion,  and  the  address  and  perseverance 
of  the  government,  formed  too  powerful  a  combination,  and 
triumphed  over  the  national  discontents  which  had  not  yet 
been  formed  into  resistance.  The  new  bishops  were  appoint- 
ed ;  Granvelle  securing  for  himself  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Mechlin,  with  the  title  of  primate  of  the  Low  Countries.  At 
the  same  time  Paul  IV.  put  the  crowning  point  to  the  capital 
of  his  ambition,  by  presenting  him  with  a  cardinal's  hat. 

The  new  bishops  were  to  a  man  most  violent,  intolerant, 
and  It  may  be^ conscientious,  opponents  to  the  wide-spreading 
(ioctriTi^©  of  reforiii.  The  execution  of  the  edicts  against 
heresy  was  conhdcd  ^^  ^^^^^'  The  provincial  governors  and 
inferior  magistrates  were  ^Jl^mandc  d  to  aid  them  with  a 


*  Vandervynct. 


i4 


1561.  THE    REFORMATION.  89 

strong"  arm ;  and  the  most  unjust  and  frightful  persecution 
immediately  commenced.  But  still  some  of  these  govern- 
ors and  magistrates,  considering  themselves  not  only  the 
olficers  of  the  prince,  but  the  protectors  of  the  people, 
and  the  defenders  of  the  laws  rather  than  of  the  faith,  did 
not  blindly  conform  to  those  harsh  and  illegal  commands. 
The  prince  of  Orange,  stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and 
Utrecht,  and  the  count  of  Egmont,  governor  of  Flanders  and 
Artois,  permitted  no  persecutions  in  those  five  provinces. 
But  in  various  places  the  very  people,  even  when  influenced 
by  their  superiors,  openly  opposed  it.  Catholics  as  well  as 
Protestants  were  indignant  at  the  atrocious  spectacles  of 
cruelty  presented  on  all  sides.  The  public  peace  was  endan- 
g-ered  by  isolated  acts  of  resistance,  and  fears  of  a  general  in- 
surrection soon  became  universal. 

The  apparent  temporizing  or  seeming  uncertainty  of  the 
champions  of  the  new  doctrines  formed  the  great  obstacle  to 
the  reformation,  and  tended  to  prolong  the  dreadful  struggle 
which  was  now  only  commencing  in  the  Low  Countries.  It 
was  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  convince  the  people  that 
popery  was  absurd,  and  at  the  same  time  to  set  limits  to  the 
absurdity.  Had  the  change  been  from  blind  belief  to  total 
infidelity,  it  would  (as  in  a  modern  instance)  have  been  much 
easier,  though  less  lasting.  Men  might,  in  a  time  of  such 
excitement,  have  been  persuaded  that  all  religion  productive 
of  abuses  such  as  then  abounded  was  a  farce,  and  that  com- 
mon sense  called  for  its  abolition.  But  when  the  boundaries 
of  belief  became  a  question;  when  the  world  was  told  it 
ought  to  reject  some  doctrines,  and  retain  others  which  seemed 
as  difficult  of  comprehension ;  when  one  tenet  was  pronounced 
idolatry,  and  to  doubt  another  declared  damnation; — the 
world  either  exploded  or  recoiled :  it  went  too  far,  or  it  shrank 
back ;  plunged  into  atheism,  or  relapsed  into  popery.  It  was 
thus  the  reformation  was  checked  in  the  first  instance.  Its 
supporters  were  the  strong-minded  and  intelligent ;  and  they 
never,  and  least  of  all  in  those  days,  formed  the  mass.  Su- 
perstition and  bigotry  had  enervated  the  intellects  of  the  ma- 
jority ;  and  the  high  resolve  of  those  with  whom  the  great 
work  commenced,  was  mixed  with  a  severity  that  materially 
retarded  its  progress.  For  though  personal  interests,  as  with 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  rigid  enthusiasm,  a«  witlr  Cal- 
vin, strengthened  the  infant  reformation;  Ihe  first  led  to  vio- 
lence which  irritated  many,  the  second  to  austerity  which  dis- 
gusted them ;  and  it  wa^  sonn  discovered  that  the  change  was 
almost  confined  to  forms  of  practice,  and  that  the  essentials 
of  abuse  were  likely  to  be  carefully  preserved.     All  these, 

H2 


■ 


90  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1561. 

and  other  arguments,  artfully  modified  to  distract  the  people, 
were  urged  by  the  new  bishops  in  the  Netherlands,  and  by 
those  whom  they  employed  to  arrest  the  progress  of  reform. 

Among  the  various  causes  of  the  general  confusion,  the 
situation  of  Brabant  gave  to  that  province  a  peculiar  share  of 
suffering.  Brussels,  its  capital,  being  the  seat  of  government, 
had  no  particular  chief  magistrate,  like  the  other  provinces. 
The  executive  power  was  therefore  wholly  confided  to  the 
municipal  authorities  and  the  territorial  proprietors.  But 
these,  though  generally  patriotic  in  their  views,  were  divided 
into  a  multiplicity  of  different  opinions.  Rivalry  and  resent- 
ment produced  a  total  want  of  union,  ended  in  anarchy,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  civil  war.  William  of  Nassau  pene- 
trated the  cause,  and  proposed  the  remedy  in  moving  for  the 
appointment  of  a  provincial  governor.  This  proposition  terri- 
fied Granvelle,  who  saw,  as  clearly  as  did  his  sagacious  oppo- 
nent in  the  council,  that  the  nomination  of  a  special  protector 
between  the  people  and  the  government  would  have  para- 
lyzed all  his  efforts  for  hurrying  on  the  discord  and  resistance 
which  were  meant  to  be  the  plausible  excuses  for  the  intro- 
duction of  arbitrary  power.  He  therefore  energetically  dis- 
sented from  the  proposed  measure,  and  William  immediately 
desisted  from  his  demand.  But  he  at  the  same  time  claimed, 
in  the  name  of  the  whole  country,  the  convocation  of  the 
states-general.  This  assembly  alone  was  competent  to  de- 
cide what  was  just,  legal,  and  obligatory  for  each  province 
and  every  town.  Governors,  magistrates,  and  simple  citi- 
zens, would  thus  have  some  rule  for  their  common  conduct ; 
and  the  government  would  be  at  least  endowed  with  the  dig- 
nity of  uniformity  and  steadiness.  The  ministers  endeavored 
to  evade  a  demand  which  they  were  at  first  unwilling  openly 
to  refuse.  But  the  firm  demeanor  and  persuasive  eloquence 
of  the  prince  of  Orange  carried  before  them  all  who  were  not 
actually  bought  by  the  crown ;  and  Granvelle  found  himself 
at  length  forced  to  avow  that  an  express  order  from  the  king 
forbade  the  convocation  of  the  states,  on  any  pretext,  during 
his  absence. 

The  veil  was  thus  rent  asunder,  which  had  in  some  mea- 
sure concealed  the  deformity  of  Philip's  despotism.  The  re- 
sult was  a  powerful  confederacy  among  all  who  held  it  odious, 
for  tlic  f>*^'irthrow  of  Granvelle,  to  whom  they  chose  to  at- 
tribute the  king's  ccnduct ;  thus  bringing  into  practical  result 
the  sound  principle  of  ministerial  responsibility,  without 
%yhich,  except  in  some  peculiar  case  of  local  urgency  or  po- 
litical crisis,  the  name  of  constitutional  government  is  but  a 
mockery.    Many  of  the  royalist  noble'^  united  for  tlie  national 


1561.  THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGB.  91 

cause ;  and  even  the  governant  joined  her  efforts  to  theirs, 
for  an  object  which  would  relieve  her  from  the  tyranny  which 
none  felt  more  than  she  did.  Those  who  composed  this  con- 
federacy against  the  minister  were  actuated  by  a  great  va- 
riety of  motives.  The  duchess  of  Parma  hated  him,  as  a 
domestic  spy  robbing  her  of  all  real  authority ;  the  royalist 
nobles,  as  an  insolent  upstart  at  every  instant  mortifying  their 
pride.  The  counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  with  nobler  senti- 
ments, opposed  hrni  as  the  author  of  their  country's  growing 
misfortunes.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of  the  confederates  ex- 
cept the  prince  of  Orange  clearly  saw  that  they  were  putting 
themselves  in  direct  and  personal  opposition  to  the  king  him- 
self William  alone,  clear-sighted  in  politics  and  profound  in 
his  views,  knew,  in  thus  devoting  himself  to  the  public  cause, 
the  adversary  with  whom  he  entered  the  lists. 

This  great  man,  for  whom  the  national  traditions  still  pre- 
serve the  sacred  title  of  "  father"  (  Vader-  Willem,)  and  who 
was  in  truth  not  merely  the  parent  but  the  political  creator  of 
the  country,  was  at  this  period  in  his  thirtietli  year.  He 
already  joined  the  vigor  of  manhood  to  the  wisdom  of  age. 
Brought  up  under  the  eye  of  Charles  V.,  whose  sagacity  soon 
discovered  his  precocious  talents,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
councils  of  the  emperor,  at  a  time  of  life  which  was  little  ad- 
vanced beyond  mere  boyhood.  He  alone  was  chosen  by  this 
powerful  sovereign  to  be  present  at  the  audiences  which  he 
gave  to  foreign  ambassadors,  which  proves  that  in  early  youth 
he  well  deserved  by  his  discretion  the  surname  of  "  the  taci- 
turn." It  was  on  the  arm  of  William,  then  twenty  years  of 
age,  and  already  named  by  him  to  the  command  of  the  Bel- 
gian troops,  that  this  powerful  monarch  leaned  for  support  on 
the  memorable  day  of  his  abdication ;  and  he  immediately  after- 
wards employed  him  on  the  important  mission  of  bearing  the 
imperial  crown  to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  in  whose  favor  he 
had  resigned  it.  William's  grateful  attachment  to  Charles 
did  not  blind  him  to  the  demerits  of  Philip.  He  repaired  to 
France,  as  one  of  the  hostages  on  the  part  of  the  latter  mon- 
arch for  the  fulfilment  of  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis ;  and 
he  then  learned  from  the  lips  of  Henry  II.,  who  soon  con- 
ceived a  high  esteem  for  him,  the  measures  reciprocally 
agreed  on  by  the  two  sovereigns  for  the  oppression  of  their 
subjects.*  From  that  moment  his  mind  was  made  up  on  the 
character  of  Philip,  and  on  the  part  which  he  had  himself  to 
perform ;  and  he  never  felt  a  doubt  on  the  first  point,  nor 
swerved  from  the  latter. 

*  Vandervynct. 


92  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1561. 

But  even  before  his  patriotism  was  openly  displayed,  Philip 
had  taken  a  dislike  to  one  in  whom  his  shrewdness  quickly 
discovered  an  intellect  of  which  he  was  jealous.  He  could 
not  actually  remove  William  from  all  interference  with  pub- 
lic affairs;  but  he  refused  him  the  government  of  Flanders, 
and  opposed,  in  secret,  his  projected  marriage  with  a  princess 
of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  which  was  calculated  to  bring  him 
a  considerable  accession  of  fortune,  and  consequently  of  in- 
fluence. It  may  be  therefore  said  that  William,  in  his  sub- 
sequent conduct,  was  urged  by  motives  of  personal  enmity 
against  Philip.  Be  it  so.  We  do  not  seek  to  raise  him  above 
the  common  feelings  of  humanity ;  and  we  should  risk  the 
sinking  him  below  them,  if  we  supposed  him  insensible  to 
the  natural  effects  of  just  resentment. 

-  The  secret  impulses  of  conduct  can  never  be  known  be- 
yond the  individual's  own  breast ;  but  actions  must,  hcAvever 
questionable,  be  taken  as  the  tests  of  motives.  In  all  those 
of  William's  illustrious  career  we  can  detect  none  that  might 
be  supposed  to  spring  from  vulgar  or  base  feelings.  If  his 
hostility  to  Philip  was  indeed  increased  by  private  dislike,  he 
has  at  least  set  an  example  of  unparalleled  dignity  in  his 
method  of  revenge ;  but  in  calmly  considering  and  weighing, 
without  deciding  on  the  question,  we  see  nothing  that  should 
deprive  William  of  an  unsullied  title  to  pure  and  perfect 
patriotism.  The  injuries  done  to  him  by  Philip  at  this  period 
were  not  of  a  nature  to  excite  any  violent  hatred.  Enough 
of  public  wrong  was  inflicted  to  arouse  the  patriot,  but  not 
of  private  ill  to  inflame  the  man.  Neither  was  William  of  a 
vindictive  disposition.  He  was  never  known  to  turn  the 
knife  of  an  assassin  against  his  royal  rival,  even  when  the 
blade  hired  by  the  latter  glanced  from  him  reeking  with  his 
blood.  And  though  William's  enmity  may  have  been  kept 
alive  or  strengthened  by  the  provocations  he  received,  it  is 
certain  that,  if  a  foe  to  the  king,  he  was,  as  long  as  it  was 
possible,  the  faithful  counsellor  of  the  crown.  He  spared  no 
pains  to  impress  on  the  monarch  who  hated  him  the  real 
means  for  preventing  the  coming  evils  ;  and  had  not  a  revo- 
lution been  absolutely  inevitable,  it  is  he  who  would  have 
prevented  it. 

Such  was  the  chief  of  the  patriot  party,  chosen  by  the 
silent  election  of  general  opinion,  and  by  that  involuntary 
homage  to  genius,  which  leads  individuals  in  the  train  of 
those  master-minds  who  take  the  lead  in  public  afl^airs. 
Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  and  some  others,  largely  shared 
with  him  the  popular  favor.  The  multitude  could  not  for 
some  time  distinguish  the  uncertain  and  capricious  opposition 


1564.  GRANVELLE    RECALLED.  93 

of  an  offended  courtier  from  the  determined  resistence  of  a 
great  man.  William  was  still  comparatively  young ;  he  had 
lived  long  out  of  the  country ;  and  it  was  little  by  little  that 
his  eminent  public  virtues  were  developed  and  understood. 

The  great  object  of  immediate  good  was  the  removal  of 
cardinal  Granvelle.  William  boldly  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  confederacy.  He  wrote  to  the  king,  conjointly  with 
counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  faithfully  portraying  the  state  of 
aifairs.  The  duchess  of  Parma  backed  this  remonstrance 
with  a  strenuous  request  for  Granvelle's  dismission.  Philip's 
reply  to  the  three  noblemen  was  a  mere  tissue  of  duplicity  to 
obtain  delay,  accompanied  by  an  invitation  to  count  Egmont 
to  repair  to  Madrid,  to  hear  his  sentiments  at  large  by  word  of 
mouth.  His  only  answer  to  the  governant  was  a  positive  re- 
commendation to  use  every  possible  means  to  disunite  and 
breed  ill-will  among  the  three  confederate  lords.  It  was  diffi- 
cult to  deprive  William  of  the  confidence  of  his  friends,  and 
impossible  to  deceive  him.  He  saw  the  trap  prepared  by  the 
royal  intrigues,  restrained  Egmont  for  a  while  from  the  fatal 
step  he  was  but  too  well  inclined  to  take,  and  persuaded  liim 
and  Horn  to  renew  with  him  their  firm  but  respectful  repre- 
sentations ;  at  the  same  time  begging  permission  to  resign 
their  various  employments,  and  simultaneously  ceasing  to 
appear  at  the  court  of  the  governant. 

In  the  mean  time  every  possible  indignity  was  offered  to 
the  cardinal  by  private  pique  and  public  satire.  Several  lords, 
following  count  Egmont's  example,  had  a  kind  of  capuchon 
or  fool's-cap  embroidered  on  the  liveries  of  their  varlets ;  and 
it  was  generally  known  that  this  was  meant  as  a  practical 
parody  on  the  cardinal's  hat.  The  crowd  laughed  heartily  at 
this  stupid  pleasantry ;  and  the  coarse  satire  of  the  times 
may  be  judged  by  a  caricature,  which  was  forwarded  to  the 
cardinal's  own  hands,  representing  him  in  the  act  of  hatching 
a  nest  full  of  eggs,  from  which  a  crowd  of  bishops  escaped, 
while  overhead  was  the  devil  in  propria  persona,  with  tlie 
following  scroll : — "  This  is  my  well-beloved  son — listen  to 
him  !"* 

Philip,  thus  driven  before  the  popular  voice,  found  himself 
forced  to  the  choice  of  throwing  off  the  mask  at  once,  or  of 
sacrificing  Granvelle.  An  invincible  inclination  for  mana3uv- 
ring  and  deceit  decided  him  on  the  latter  measure ;  and  the 
cardinal,  recalled  but  not  disgraced,  quitted  the  Netherlands 
on  the  10th  of  March,  1564. f  The  secret  instructions  to  the 
governant  remained  unrevoked ;  the  president  Viglius  suc- 

*  Dujardin,  Hist.  Gen.  des  Prov.  Un.  t.  v.  p.  7G,  j  Vandervynct. 


94  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1565. 

ceeded  to  the  post  which  Granvelle  had  occupied;  and  it  was 
clear  that  the  projects  of  the  king"  had  suffered  no  change. 

Nevertheless  some  good  resulted  from  the  departure  of  the 
impopular  minister.  The  public  fermentation  subsided  ;  the 
patriot  lords  reappeared  at  court ;  and  the  prince  of  Orange 
acquired  an  increasing  influence  in  the  council  and  over  the 
governant,  who  by  his  advice  adopted  a  conciliatory  line  of 
conduct — a  fallacious  but  still  a  temporary  hope  for  the  na- 
tion. But  the  calm  was  of  short  duration.  Scarcely  was 
this  moderation  evinced  by  the  government,  when  Philip,  ob- 
stinate in  his  designs,  and  outrageous  in  his  resentment,  sent 
an  order  to  have  the  edicts  against  heresy  put  into  most  rig- 
orous execution,  and  to  proclaim  throughout  the  seventeen 
provinces  the  furious  decree  of  the  council  of  Trent. 

The  revolting  cruelty  and  illegality  of  the  first  edicts  were 
already  admitted.  As  to  the  decrees  of  this  memorable  coun- 
cil, they  were  only  adapted  for  countries  in  submission  to  an 
absolute  despotism.  They  were  received  in  the  Netherlands 
with  general  reprobation.  Even  the  new  bishops  loudly  de- 
nounced them  as  unjust  innovations ;  and  thus  Philip  found 
zealous  opponents  in  those  on  whom  he  had  reckoned  as  his 
most  servile  tools.  The  governant  was  not  the  less  urged  to 
implicit  obedience  to  the  orders  of  the  king  by  Viglius  and 
De  Berlaimont,  who  took  upon  themselves  an  almost  menac- 
ing tone.  The  duchess  assembled  a  council  of  state,  and 
asked  its  advice  as  to  her  proceedings.  The  prince  of  Orange 
at  once  boldly  proposed  disobedience  to  measures  fraught  with 
danger  to  the  monarchy  and  ruin  to  the  nation.  The  council 
could  not  resist  his  appeal  to  their  best  feelings.  His  proposal 
that  fresh  remonstrances  should  be  addressed  to  the  kin^.  met 
with  almost  general  support.  The  president  Viglius,  vvho 
had  spoken  in  the  opening  of  the  council  in  favor  of  the  king's 
orders,  was  overwhelmed  by  William's  reasoning,  and  de- 
manded time  to  prepare  his  reply.  His  agitation  during  the 
debate,  and  his  despair  of  carrying  the  measures  against  the 
patriot  party,  brought  on  in  the  night  an  attack  of  apoplexy. 

It  was  resolved  to  dispatch  a  special  envoy  to  Spain,  to  ex- 
plain to  Philip  the  views  of  the  council,  and  to  lay  before  him 
a  plan  proposed  by  the  prince  of  Orange  for  forming  a  junc- 
tion between  the  two  councils  and  that  of  finance,  and  iform- 
ing  them  into  one  body.  The  object  of  this  measure  was  at 
once  to  give  greater  union  and  power  to  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment, to  create  a  central  administration  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  to  remove  from  some  obscure  and  avaricious  finan- 
ciers the  exclusive  management  of  the  national  resources. 
The  count  of  Egmont,  chosen  by  the  council  for  this  impor- 


J 


1566.  rillLIP  ESTABLISHES  THE  INaUISITION.  95 

tant  mission,  set  out  for  Madrid  in  the  month  of  February, 
1565.  Philip  received  him  with  profound  hypocrisy ;  loaded 
him  with  the  most  flattering*  promises ;  sent  him  back  in  the 
utmost  elation :  and  when  the  credulous  count  returned  to 
Brussels,  he  found  that  the  written  orders,  of  which  he  was 
the  bearer,  were  in  direct  variance  with  every  word  which 
the  king  had  uttered.* 

These  orders  were  chiefly  concerning  the  reiterated  sub- 
ject of  the  persecution  to  be  inflexibly  pursued  against  the 
religious  reformers.  Not  satisfied  with  the  hitherto  estab- 
lished forms  of  punishment,  Philip  now  expressly  commanded 
that  the  more  revolting  means  decreed  by  his  father  in  the 
rigor  of  his  early  zeal,  such  as  burning,  living  burial,  and  the 
like,  should  be  adopted ;  and  he  somewhat  more  obscurely 
directed  that  the  victims  should  be  no  longer  publicly  immo- 
lated, but  secretly  destroyed.  He  endeavored,  by  this  vague 
phraseology,  to  avoid  the  actual  utterance  of  the  word  in- 
quisition; but  he  thus  virtually  established  that  atrocious 
tribunal,  with  attributes  still  more  terrific  than  even  in  Spain ; 
for  there  the  condemned  had  at  least  the  consolation  of  dying 
in  open  day,  and  of  displaying  the  fortitude  which  is  rarely 
proof  against  the  horror  of  a  private  execution.  Philip  had 
thus  consummated  his  treason  against  tlie  principles  of  jus- 
tice and  the  practices  of  jurisprudence,  which  had  heretofore 
characterized  the  country;  and  against  the  most  vital  of 
those  privileges  which  he  had  solemnly  sworn  to  maintain. 

His  design  of  establishing  this  horrible  tribunal,  so  impi- 
ously named  holy  by  its  founders,  had  been  long  suspected 
by  the  people  of  the  Netherlands.  The  expression  of  those 
fear^  "iad  reached  him  more  than  once.  He  as  often  replied 
by  aV^rances  that  he  had  formed  no  such  project,  and  par- 
ticularly to  count  d'Egmont  during  his  recent  visit  to  Madrid. 
But  at  that  very  time  he  assembled  a  conclave  of  his  crea- 
tures, doctors  of  theology,  of  whom  he  formally  demanded  an 
opinion  as  to  whether  he  could  conscientiously  tolerate  two 
sorts  of  religion  in  the  Netherlands.  The  doctors,  hoping  to 
please  him,  replied,  that  "  he  might,  for  the  avoidance  of  a 
greater  evil."  Philip  trembled  with  rage,  and  exclaimed, 
with  a  threatening  tone,  "  I  ask  not  if  I  can,  but  if  I  oughtP 
The  theologians  read  in  this  question  the  nature  of  the  ex- 
pected reply ;  and  it  was  amply  conformable  to  his  wish.  He 
immediately  threw  himself  on  his  knees  before  a  crucifix, 
and  raising  his  hands  towards  heaven,  put  up  a  prayer  for 
strength  in  his  resolution  to  pursue  as  deadly  enemies  all  who 

*  Vandervynct. 


\ 


96  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1566. 

viewed  that  efRgy  with  feelings  diiFerent  from  his  own.  If 
this  were  not  really  a  sacrilegious  farce,  it  must  be  that  the 
blaspheming  bigot  believed  the  Deity  to  be  a  monster  of  cru- 
elty like  himself.  •     • . 

Even  Viglius  was  terrified  by  the  nature  of  Philip's  com- 
mands ;  and  the  patriot  lords  once  more  withdrew  from  all 
share  in  the  government,  leaving  to  the  duchess  of  Parma 
and  her  ministers  the  whole  responsibility  of  the  new  mea- 
sures. They  were  at  length  put  into  actual  and  vigorous  exe- 
cution in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1566.  The  inquisitors 
of  the  faith,  with  their  familiars,  stalked  abroad  boldly  in  the 
devoted  provinces,  carrying  persecution  and  death  in  their 
train.  Numerous  but  partial  insurrections  opposed  these 
odious  intruders.  Every  district  and  town  became  the  scene 
of  frightful  executions  or  tumultuous  resistance.  The  con- 
verts to  the  new  doctrines  multiplied,  as  usual,  under  the 
effects  of  persecution.  "  There  was  nowhere  to  be  seen," 
says  a  contemporary  author,  "  the  meanest  mechanic  who  did 
not  find  a  weapon  to  strike  down  the  murderers  of  his  com- 
patriots." Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht,  alone  escaped  from 
those  fast  accumulating  horrors.  William  of  Nassau  was 
there. 


CHAR  vin. 

1566. 

COMMENCEMENT   OF   THE   REVOLUTION. 

The  governant  and  her  ministers  now  began  to  tremble. 
Philip's  favorite  counsellors  advised  him  to  yield  to  the  popu- 
lar despair ;  but  nothing  could  change  his  determination  to 
pursue  his  bloody  game  to  the  last  chance.  He  had  foreseen 
the  impossibility  of  reducing  the  country  to  slavery  as  long 
as  it  maintained  its  tranquillity,  and  that  union  which  forms 
in  itself  the  elements  and  the  cement  of  strength.  It  was 
from  deep  calculation  that  he  had  excited  the  troubles,  and 
now  kept  them  alive.  He  knew  that  the  structure  of  illegal 
power  could  only  be  raised  on  the  ruins  of  public  rights  and 
national  happiness;  and  the  materials  of  desolation  found 
sympathy  in  his  congenial  mind. 

And  now  in  reality  began  the  awful  revolution  of  the 
Netherlands  against  their  tyrant.  In  a  few  years  this  so 
lately  flourishing  and  happy  nation  presented  a  frightful  pic- 


1566.         COMMENCEMENT    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  97 

ture ;  and  in  the  midst  of  European  peace,  prosperity,  and 
civilization,  the  wickedness  of  one  prince  drew  down  on  the 
country  he  misgoverned  more  evils  than  it  had  suffered  for 
centuries  from  the  worst  effects  of  its  foreign  foes. 

William  of  Nassau  has  been  accused  of  having  at  length 
urged  on  the  governant  to  promulgate  the  final  edicts  and 
the  resolutions  of  the  council  of  Trent,  and  then  retiring  from 
the  council  of  state.  This  line  of  conduct  may  be  safely 
admitted  and  fairly  defended  by  his  admirers.  He  had  seen 
the  uselessness  of  remonstrance  against  the  intentions  of  the 
king.  Every  possible  means  had  been  tried,  without  effect, 
to  soften  his  pitiless  heart  to  the  sufferings  of  the  country. 
At  length  the  moment  came  when  the  people  had  reached 
that  pitch  of  despair  which  is  the  great  force  of  the  oppressed, 
and  William  felt  that  their  strength  was  now  equal  to  the 
contest  he  had  long  foreseen.  It  is  therefore  absurd  to  accuse 
him  of  artifice  in  the  exercise  of  that  wisdom  which  rarely 
failed  him  on  any  important  crisis.  A  change  of  circumstan- 
ces gives  a  new  name  to  actions  and  motives ;  and  it  would 
be  hard  to  blame  William  of  Nassau  for  the  only  point  in 
which  he  bore  the  least  resemblance  to  Philip  of  Spain, — 
that  depth  of  penetration,  which  the  latter  turned  to  every 
base,  and  the  former  to  every  noble  purpose. 

Up  to  the  present  moment  the  prince  of  Orange  and  the 
counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  with  their  partisans  and  friends, 
had  sincerely  desired  the  public  peace,  and  acted  in  the  com- 
mon interest  of  the  king  and  the  people.  But  all  the  nobles 
had  not  acted  with,  the  same  constitutional  moderation.  Many 
of  those,  disappointed  on  personal  accounts,  others  professing 
the  new  doctrines,  and  the  rest  variously  affected  by  manifold 
motives,  formed  a  body  of  violent  and  sometimes  of  impru- 
dent malcontents.  The  marriage  of  Alexander  prince  of 
Parma,  son  of  the  governant,  which  was  at  this  time  cele- 
brated at  Brussels,  brought  together  an  immense  number  of 
these  dissatisfied  nobles,  who  became  thus  drawn  into  closer 
connexion,  and  whose  national  candor  was  more  than  usually 
brought  out  in  the  confidential  intercourse  of  society.  Politics 
and  patriotism  were  the  common  subjects  of  conversation  in 
the  various  convivial  meetings  that  took  place.  Two  German 
nobles,  counts  Holle  and  Schwarzemberg,  at  that  period  in 
the  Netherlands,  loudly  proclaim.ed  the  favorable  disposition 
of  the  princes  of  the  empire  towards  the  Belgians.*  It  was 
supposed  even  thus  early  that  negotiations  had  been  opened 
with  several  of  those  sovereigns.     In  short,  nothing  seemed 

♦  Schiller. 

I 


98  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1566. 

wanting  but  a  leader,  to  give  consistency  and  weight  to  the 
confederacy  which  was  as  yet  but  in  embryo.  This  was 
doubly  furnished  in  the  persons  of  Louis  of  Nassau  and 
Henry  de  Brederode.  The  former,  brother  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  was  possessed  of  many  of  those  brilliant  qualities 
which  mark  men  as  worthy  of  distinction  in  times  of  peril. 
Educated  at  Geneva,  he  was  passionately  attached  to  the  re- 
formed religion,  and  identified  in  his  hatred  the  Catholic 
church  and  the  tyranny  of  Spain.  Brave  and  impetuous,  he 
was,  to  his  elder  brother,  but  as  an  adventurous  partisan 
compared  with  a  sagacious  general.  He  loved  William  as 
well  as  he  did  their  common  cause,  and  his  life  was  devoted 
to  both.  ^  i  . 

Henry  de  Brederode,  lord  of  Vianen  and  marquis  of  Utrecht, 
was  descended  from  the  ancient  counts  of  Holland.  This 
illustrious  origin,  which  in  his  own  eyes  formed  a  high  claim 
to  distinction,  had  not  procured  him  any  of  those  employ- 
ments or  dignities  which  he  considered  his  due.  He  was 
presumptuous  and  rash,  and  rather  a  fluent  speaker  than  an 
eloquent  orator.  Louis  of  Nassau  was  thoroughly  inspired 
by  the  justice  of  the  cause  he  espoused ;  De  Brederode  es- 
poused it  for  the  glory  of  becoming  its  champion.  The  first 
only  wished  for  action;  the  latter  longed  for  distinction.  But 
neither  the  enthusiasm  of  Nassau,  nor  the  vanity  of  De  Bre- 
derode, was  allied  with  those  superior  attributes  required  to 
form  a  hero. 

The  confederation  acquired  its  perfect  organization  in  the 
month  of  February,  1566,  on  the  10th  of  which  month  its 
celebrated  manifesto  was  signed  by  its  numerous  adherents. 
The  first  name  afiixed  to  this  document  was  that  of  Philip 
de  Marnix,  lord  of  St.  Aldegonde,  from  whose  pen  it  eman- 
ated; a  man  of  great  talents  both  as  soldier  and  writer. 
Numbers  of  the  nobility  followed  him  on  this  muster-roll  of 
patriotism,  and  many  of  the  most  zealous  royalists  were 
among  them.  This  remarkable  proclamation  of  general 
feeling  consisted  chiefly  in  a  powerful  reprehension  of  the 
illegal  establishment  of  the  inquisition  in  the  Low  Countries, 
and  a  solemn  obligation  on  the  members  of  the  confederacy 
to  unite  in  the  common  cause  against  this  detested  nuisance. 
Men  of  all  ranks  and  classes  offered  their  signatures,  and 
several  Catholic  priests  among  the  rest.  The  prince  of 
Orange,  and  the  counts  Egmont,  Horn,  and  Meghem,  de- 
clined becoming  actual  parties  to  this  bold  measure;  and 
when  the  question  was  debated  as  to  the  most  appropriate 
way  of  presenting  an  address  to  the  governant,  these  noble- 


1566.  IMAGE-BREAKERS.  107 

stroyed  not  only  the  images  and  relics  of  saints,  but  those 
very  ornaments  which  Christians  of  all  sects  hold  sacred,  and 
essential  to  the  most  simple  rites  of  religion. 

The  cities  of  Ypres,  Lille,  and  other  places  of  importance, 
were  soon  subject  to  similar  visitations ;  and  the  whole  of 
Flanders  was  in  a  few  days  ravaged  by  furious  multitudes, 
whose  frantic  energy  spread  terror  and  destruction  on  their 
route.  Antwerp  was  protected  for  a  while  by  the  presence 
of  the  prince  of  Orange ;  but  an  order  from  the  governant 
having  obliged  him  to  repair  to  Brussels,  a  few  nights  after 
his  departure  the  celebrated  cathedral  shared  the  fate  of 
many  a  minor  temple,  and  was  utterly  pillaged.  The  blind 
fury  of  the  spoilers  was  not  confined  to  the  mere  effigies 
which  they  considered  the  types  of  idolatry,  nor  even  to  the 
pictures,  the  vases,  the  sixty-six  altars,  and  their  richly 
WTOught  accessories ;  but  it  was  equally  fatal  to  the  splendid 
organ,  which  was  considered  the  finest  at  that  time  in  exist- 
ence. The  rapidity  and  the  order  with  which  this  torchlight 
scene  was  acted,  without  a  single  accident  among  the  nu- 
merous doers,  has  excited  the  wonder  of  almost  all  its  early 
historians.  One  of  them  does  not  hesitate  to  ascribe  the 
"miracle"  to  the  absolute  agency  of  demons.*  For  three 
days  and  nights  these  revolting  scenes  were  acted,  and  every 
church  in  the  city  shared  the  fate  of  the  cathedral,  which 
next  to  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  was  the  most  magnificent  in 
Christendom.! 

Ghent,  Tournay,  Valenciennes,  Mechlin,  and  other  cities, 
were  next  the  theatres  of  similar  excesses ;  and  in  an  in- 
credibly short  space  of  time  above  400  churches  were  pillaged 
in  Flanders  and  Brabant  Zealand,  Utrecht,  and  others  of 
the  northern  provinces,  suffered  more  or  less;  Friesland, 
Guelders,  and  Holland  alone  escaped,  and  even  the  latter  but 
in  partial  instances. 

These  terrible  scenes  extinguished  every  hope  of  recon- 
ciliation with  the  king.  An  inveterate  and  interminable 
hatred  was  now  established  between  him  and  the  people ;  for 
the  whole  nation  was  identified  with  deeds,  which  were  in 
reality  only  shared  by  the  most  base,  and  were  lothesome  to 
all  who  were  enlightened.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  patriot 
nobles  might  hope  or  strive  to  exculpate  themselves ;  they 
were  sure  to  be  held  criminal  either  in  fact  or  by  implication. 
No  show  of  loyalty,  no  efforts  to  restore  order,  no  personal 
sacrifice,  could  save  them  from  the  hatred  or  screen  them 
from  the  vengeance  of  Philip. 

*  Strada.  t  Schiller. 


lOS  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1566. 

The  affright  of  the  g-overnant  during  tlie  short  reign  of 
anarchy  and  terror  was  without  bounds.  She  strove  to  make 
her  escape  from  Brussels,  and  was  restrained  from  so  doing 
only  by  the  joint  solicitations  of  Viglius  and  the  various 
knights  of  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  consisting  of  the 
first  among  the  nobles  of  all  parties.  But,  in  fact,  a  species 
of  violence  was  used  to  restrain  her  from  this  most  fatal  step ; 
for  Viglius  gave  orders  that  the  gates  of  the  city  should  be 
shut,  and  egress  refused  to  any  one  belonging  to  the  court.* 
The  somewhat  less  terrified  duchess  now  named  count  Mans- 
field governor  of  the  town,  reinforced  the  garrison,  ordered 
arms  to  be  distributed  to  all  her  adherents,  and  then  called  a 
council  to  deliberate  on  the  measures  to  be  adopted.  A  com- 
promise with  the  confederates  and  the  reformers  was  unani- 
mously agreed  to.  The  prince  of  Orange  and  counts  Eg- 
mont  and  Horn  were  once  more  appointed  to  this  arduous  ar- 
bitration between  the  court  and  the  people. f  Necessity  now 
extorted  almost  every  concession  which  had  been  so  long 
denied  to  justice  and  prudence.  The  confederates  were  de- 
clared absolved  from  all  responsibility  relative  to  their  pro- 
ceedings. The  suppression  of  the  inquisition,  the  abolition 
of  the  edicts  against  heresy,  and  a  permission  for  the  preach- 
ings, were  simultaneously  published. 

The  confederates,  on  their  side,  undertook  to  remain  faith- 
ful to  the  service  of  the  king,  to  do  their  best  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  order,  and  to  punish  the  iconoclasts.  A  regular 
treaty  to  this  effect  was  drawn  up  and  executed  by  the  re- 
spective plenipotentiaries,  and  formally  approved  by  the  gov- 
ernant,  who  affixed  her  sign-manual  to  the  instrument.  She 
only  consented  to  this  measure  afler  a  long  struggle,  and 
with  tears  in  her  eyes ;  and  it  was  with  a  trembling  hand 
that  she  wrote  an  account  of  these  transactions  to  the  king.J 

Soon  afler  this  the  several  governors  repaired  to  their  re- 
spective provinces,  and  their  efforts  for  the  re-establishment 
of  tranquillity  were  attended  with  various  degrees  of  success. 
Several  of  the  ringleaders  in  the  late  excesses  were  executed ; 
and  this  severity  was  not  confined  to  the  partisans  of  the 
Catholic  church.  The  prince  of  Orange  and  count  Egmont, 
with  others  of  the  patriot  lords,  set  the  example  of  this  just 
severity.  Jolm  Casambrot  lord  of  Beckerzeel,  Egmont's 
secretary,  and  a  leading  member  of  the  confederation,  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  some  others  of  the  associated  gentle- 

*  Schiller.  f  Vandervynct.  X  Schiller. 


1566.  Philip's  vindictiveness.  109 

men,  fell  upon  a  refractory  band  of  iconoclasts  near  Gram- 
mont,  in  Flanders,  and  took  thirty  prisoners,  of  whom  he  or- 
dered twenty-eight  to  be  hanged  on  the  spot. 


CHAP.  IX. 
1566—1573. 

TO   THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF  RECIUESENS. 

All  the  services  just  related  in  the  common  cause  of  the 
country  and  the  king  produced  no  effect  on  the  vindictive 
spirit  of  the  latter.  Neither  the  lapse  of  time,  the  proofs  of 
repentance,  nor  the  fulfilment  of  their  duty,  could  efface  the 
hatred  excited  by  a  conscientious  opposition  to  even  one  de- 
sign of  despotism.* 

Philip  was  ill  at  Segovia  when  he  received  accounts  of  the 
excesses  of  the  image-breakers,  and  of  the  convention  con- 
cluded with  the  heretics.f  Dispatches  from  the  governant, 
with  private  advices  from  Viglius,  Egmont,  Mansfield,  Meg- 
hem,  de  Berlaimont,  and  others,  gave  him  ample  information 
as  to  the  real  state  of  things,  and  they  thus  strove  to  palliate 
their  having  acceded  to  the  convention.  The  emperor  even 
wrote  to  his  royal  nephew,  imploring  him  to  treat  his  way- 
ward subjects  with  moderation,  and  offered  his  mediation  be- 
tween them.  Philip,  though  severely  suffering,  gave  great 
attention  to  the  details  of  this  correspondence,  which  he 
minutely  examined,  and  laid  before  his  council  of  state,  with 
notes  and  observations  taken  by  himself  But  he  took  special 
care  to  send  to  them  only  such  parts  as  he  chose  them  to  be 
well  informed  upon ;  his  natural  distrust  not  suffering  him  to 
have  any  confidential  communication  with  men.l 

Again  the  Spanish  council  appears  to  have  interfered  be- 
tween the  people  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  enmity  of  the 
monarch ;  and  the  offered  mediation  of  the  emperor  was  re- 
commended to  his  acceptance,  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  a 
forced  concession  to  the  popular  will.  Philip  was  also  strongly 
urged  to  repair  to  the  scene  of  the  disturbances ;  and  a  main 
question  of  debate  was,  whether  he  should  march  at  the  head 
of  an  army  or  confide  himself  to  the  loyalty  and  good  faith 
of  his  Belgian  subjects.  But  tlie  indolence  or  the  pride  of 
Philip  was  too  strong  to  admit  of  his  taking  so  vigorous  a 


*  Schiller.  f  Hopper.  |  Idem. 

K 


110  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1566. 

measure ;  and  all  these  consultations  ended  in  two  letters  to 
the  governant.  In  the  first  he  declared  his  firm  intention  to 
visit  the  Netherlands  in  person;  refused  to  convoke  the 
states-general ;  passed  in  silence  the  treaties  concluded  with 
the  Protestants  and  the  confederates ;  and  finished  by  a  de- 
claration that  he  would  throw  himself  wholly  on  the  fidelity 
of  the  country.  In  his  second  letter,  meant  for  the  govern- 
ant  alone,  he  authorized  her  to  assemble  the  states-general 
if  public  opinion  became  too  powerful  for  resistance,  but  on 
no  account  to  let  it  transpire  that  he  had  under  any  circum- 
stances given  his  consent. 

During  these  deliberations  in  Spain,  the  Protestants  in  the 
Netherlands  amply  availed  themselves  of  the  privileges  they 
had  gained.  They  erected  numerous  wooden  churches  with 
incredible  activity.*  Young  and  old,  noble  and  plebeian,  of 
these  energetic  men,  assisted  in  the  manual  labors  of  these 
occupations ;  and  the  women  freely  applied  the  produce  of 
their  ornaments  and  jewels  to  forward  the  pious  work.f  But 
the  furious  outrages  of  the  iconoclasts  had  done  infinite  mis- 
chief to  both  political  and  religious  freedom :  many  of  the 
Catholics,  and  particularly  the  priests,  gradually  withdrew 
themselves  from  the  confederacy,  which  thus  lost  some  of  its 
most  firm  supporters.  And  on  the  other  hand,  the  severity 
with  which  some  of  its  members  pursued  the  guilty,  oflTended 
and  alarmed  the  body  of  the  people,  who  could  not  distin- 
guish the  shades  of  difference  between  the  love  of  liberty  and 
the  practice  of  licentiousness. 

The  governant  and  her  satellites  adroitly  took  advantage 
of  this  state  of  things  to  sow  dissension  among  the  patriots. 
Autograph  letters  from  Philip  to  the  principal  lords  were  dis- 
tributed among  them  with  such  artful  and  mysterious  pre- 
cautions, as  to  throw  the  rest  into  perplexity,  and  give  each 
suspicions  of  the  other's  fidelity.  The  report  of  the  imme- 
diate arrival  of  Philip  had  also  considerable  effect  over  the 
less  resolute,  or  more  selfish ;  and  the  confederation  was  dis- 
solving rapidly  under  the  operations  of  intrigue,  self-interest, 
and  fear.  Even  the  count  of  Egmont  was  not  proof  against 
the  subtle  seductions  of  the  wily  monarch,  whose  severe  yet 
flattering  letters  half  frightened  and  half  soothed  him  into  a 
relapse  of  royalism.  But  with  the  prince  of  Orange  Philip 
had  no  chance  of  success.  It  is  unquestionable,  that  be  his 
means  of  acquiring  information  what  they  might,  he  did  suc- 
ceed in  procuring  minute  intelligence  of  all  that  was  going j 
on  in  the  king's  most  secret  council.     He  had  from  time  to ; 

,■ 

*  Vandervynct.  f  Schiller. 


1566.  CONFERENCE    AT   TERMONDE.  Ill 

time  procured  copies  of  the  governant's  dispatches ;  but  the 
document  which  threw  the  most  important  light  upon  the 
real  intentions  of  Philip,  was  a  confidential  epistle  to  the 
governant  from  IKAlava,  the  Spanish  minister  at  Paris,  in 
which  he  spoke  in  terms  too  clear  to  admit  any  doubt  as  to  the 
terrible  example  which  the  king  was  resolved  to  make  among 
the  patriot  lords.*  Bergen  and  Montigny  confirmed  this  by 
the  accounts  they  sent  home  from  Madrid  of  the  alteration 
in  the  manner  with  which  they  were  treated  by  Philip  and 
his  courtiers ;  and  the  prince  of  Orange  was  more  firmly  de- 
cided in  his  opinions  of  the  coming  vengeance  of  the  tyrant. 

William  summoned  his  brother  Louis,  the  counts  Egmont, 
Horn,  and  Hoogstraeten,  to  a  secret  conference  at  Termonde ; 
and  he  there  submitted  to  them  this  letter  of  Alava's,  with 
others  which  he  had  received  from  Spain,  confirmatory  of  his 
worst  fears.  Louis  of  Nassau  voted  for  open  and  instant  re- 
bellion :  William  recommended  a  cautious  observance  of  the 
projects  of  government,  not  doubting  but  a  fair  pretext  would 
be  soon  given  to  justify  the  most  vigorous  overt  acts  of  re- 
volt :  but  Egmont  at  once  struck  a  death-blow  to  the  ener- 
getic project  of  one  brother,  and  the  cautious  amendment  of 
the  other,  by  declaring  his  present  resolution  to  devote  him- 
self wholly  to  the  service  of  the  king,  and  on  no  inducement 
whatever  to  risk  the  perils  of  rebellion.  He  expressed  his 
perfect  reliance  on  the  justice  and  the  goodness  of  Philip,  when 
once  he  should  see  the  determined  loyalty  of  those  whom  he 
had  hitherto  had  so  much  reason  to  suspect ;  and  he  exhorted 
the  others  to  follow  his  example.  The  two  brothers,  and 
count  Horn  implored  him  in  their  turn  to  abandon  this  blind 
reliance  on  the  tyrant ;  but  in  vain.  His  new  and  unlooked- 
for  profession  of  faith  completely  paralyzed  their  plans.  He 
possessed  too  largely  the  confidence  of  both  the  soldiery  and 
the  people,  to  make  it  possible  to  attempt  any  serious  mea- 
sure of  resistance  in  which  he  would  not  take  a  part.  The 
meeting  broke  up  without  coming  to  any  decision.  All  those 
who  bore  a  part  in  it  were  expected  at  Brussels  to  attend  the 
council  of  state ;  Egmont  alone  repaired  thither.  The  gov- 
ernant questioned  him  on  the  object  of  the  conference  at  Ter- 
monde :  he  only  replied  by  an  indignant  glance,  at  the  same 
time  presenting  a  copy  of  Alava's  letter. 

The  governant  now  applied  her  whole  efibrts  to  destroy 
the  union  among  the  patriot  lords.  She,  in  the  mean  time, 
ordered  levies  of  troops  to  the  amount  of  some  thousands,  the 
command  of  which  was  given  to  the  nobles  on  w^hose  at- 

*  Schiller. 


112  HISTORY    OF   THE    KETHERLANDS.  1566. 

tachment  she  could  reckon.  The  most  vigorous  measures 
were  adopted.  Noircarmes,  governor  of  Hainault,  appeared 
before  Valenciennes,  which,  being  in  the  power  of  the  Cal- 
vinists,  had  assumed  a  most  determined  attitude  of  resist- 
ance. He  vainly  summoned  the  place  to  submission,  and  to 
admit  a  royalist  garrison ;  and  on  receiving  an  obstinate  re- 
fusal, he  commenced  the  siege  in  form.  An  undisciplined 
rabble  of  between  3000  and  4000  gueux,  under  the  direction 
of  John  de  Soreas,  gathered  together  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Lille  and  Tournai,  with  a  show  of  attacking  these  places. 
But  the  governor  of  the  former  town  dispersed  one  party  of 
them;  and  Noircarmes  surprised  and  almost  destroyed  the 
main  body — their  leader  falling  in  the  action.*  These  were 
the  first  encounters  of  the  civil  war,  which  raged  without 
cessation  for  upwards  of  forty  years  in  these  devoted  coun- 
tries, and  which  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  re- 
markable that  ever  desolated  any  isolated  portion  of  Europe. 
The  space  which  we  have  already  given  to  the  causes  which 
produced  this  memorable  revolution,  now  actually  commenced, 
will  not  allow  us  to  do  more  than  rapidly  sketch  the  fierce 
events  that  succeeded  each  other  with  frightful  rapidity. 

While  Valenciennes  prepared  for  a  vigorous  resistance,  a 
general  synod  of  the  Protestants  was  held  at  Antwerp,  and 
De  Brederode  undertook  an  attempt  to  see  the  governant,  and 
lay  before  her  the  complaints  of  this  body :  but  she  refused 
to  admit  him  into  the  capital.  He  then  addressed  to  her  a 
remonstrance  in  writing,  in  which  he  reproached  her  with 
her  violation  of  the  treaties,  on  the  faith  of  which  the  con- 
federates had  dispersed,  and  the  majority  of  the  Protestants 
laid  down  their  arms.  He  implored  her  to  revoke  the  new 
proclamations,  by  which  she  prohibited  them  from  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion ;  and  above  all  things,  he  insisted 
on  the  abandonment  of  the  siege  of  Valenciennes,  and  the 
disbanding  of  the  new  levies.  The  governant's  reply  was 
one  of  haughty  reproach  and  defiance.  The  gauntlet  was 
now  thrown  down;  no  possible  hope  of  reconciliation  re- 
mained ;  and  the  whole  country  flew  to  arms.  A  sudden  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  the  royalists,  under  count  Meghem, 
against  Bois-le-duc,  was  repulsed  by  800  men,  commanded 
by  an  officer  named  Bomberg,  in  the  immediate  service  of 
De  Brederode,  who  had  fortified  himself  in  his  garrison  town 
of  Vjenen. 

The  prince  of  Orange  maintained  at  Antwerp  an  attitude 
of  extreme  firmness  and  caution.     His  time  for  action  had 

*  Bentivoglio. 


1567.      SURRRENDER  OF  VALENCIENNES.        113 

not  yet  arrived ;  but  his  advice  and  protection  were  of  infi- 
nite importance  on  many  occasions.     John  de  Marnix,  lord 
of  Toulouse,  brother  of  Philip  de  St.  Aldegonde,  took  pos- 
session of  Osterweel  on  the  Scheldt,  a  quarter  of  a  league 
from  Antwerp,  and  fortified  himself  in  a  strong"  position.  But 
he  was  impetuously  attacked  by  the  count  de  Lannoy  with  a 
considerable  force,  and  perished,  after  a  desperate  defence, 
with  full  1000  of  his  followers.     Three  hundred  who  laid 
down  their  arms,  were  immediately  after  the  action  butch- 
ered in  cold  blood.*    Antwerp  was  on  this  occasion  saved 
from  the  excesses  of  its  divided  and  furious  citizens,  and  pre- 
served from  the  horrors  of  pillage,  by  the  calmness  and  in- 
trepidity of  the  prince  of  Orange.     Valenciennes  at  length 
capitulated  to  the  royalists,  disheartened  by  the  defeat  and 
death  of  De  Marnix,  and  terrified  by  a  bombardment  of 
thirty-six  hours.     The  governor,  two  preachers,  and  about 
forty  of  the  citizens,  were  hanged  by  the  victors,  and  the 
reformed  religion  prohibited.    Noircarmes  promptly  followed 
up  his  success.     Maestricht,  Turnhout,  and  Bois-le-duc  sub- 
mitted at  his  approach ;  and  the  insurgents  were  soon  driven 
from  all  the  provinces,  Holland  alone  excepted.     Brederode 
i  fled  to  Germany,  where  he  died  the  following  year.f 
I      The  governant  showed,  in  her  success,  no  small  proofs  of 
\  decision.     She  and  her  counsellors,  acting  under  orders  from 
the  king,  were  resolved  on  embarrassing  to  the  utmost  the 
I  patriot  lords ;  and  a  new  oath  of  allegiance,  to  be  proposed 
I  to  every  functionary  of  the  state,  was  considered  as  a  certain 
means  for  attaining  this  object  without  the  violence  of  an  un- 
!  merited  dismissal.    The  terms  of  this  oath  were  strongly  op- 
'  posed  to  every  principle  of  patriotism  and  toleration.     Count 
\  Mansfield  was  the  first  of  the  nobles  who  took  it.    The  duke 
'  of  Arschot,  counts  Meghem,  Berlaimont,  and  Egmont,  fol- 
1  lowed  his  example.     The  counts  of  Horn,  Hoogstraeten,  De 
i  Brederode,  and  others,  refused  on  various  pretexts.     Every 
!!  artifice  and  persuasion  was  tried  to  induce  the  prince  of 
I  Orange  to  subscribe  to  this  new  test;  but  his  resolution  had 
j  been  for  some  time  formed.     He  saw  that  every  chance  of 
^  constitutional  resistance  to  tyranny  was  for  the  present  at  an 
end.     The  time  for  petitioning  was  gone  by.  The  confedera- 
I  tion  was  dissolved.     A  royalist  army  was  in  the  field ;  the 
'  duke  of  Alva  was  notoriously  approaching  at  the  head  of 
another,  more  numerous.     It  was  worse  than  useless  to  con- 
clude a  hollow  convention  with  the  governant,  of  mock  loy- 
alty on  his  part  and  mock  confidence  on  hers.     Many  other 

*  Vandervynct.  +  Bentivoglio. 

K2 


I 


114  HISTORY    OP   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1567. 

important  considerations  convinced  William  that  his  only 
honorable,  safe,  and  wise  course  was  to  exile  himself  from 
the  Netherlands  altogether,  until  more  propitious  circum- 
stances allowed  of  his  acting-  openly,  boldly,  and  with  effect. 

Before  he  put  this  plan  of  voluntary  banishment  into  exe- 
cution, he  and  Egmont  had  a  parting  interview,  at  the  village 
of  Willebroek,  between  Antwerp  and  Brussels.  Count  Mans- 
field, and  Berti,  secretary  to  the  governant,  were  present  at 
this  memorable  meeting.  The  details  of  what  passed  were 
reported  to  the  confederates  by  one  of  their  party,  who  con- 
trived to  conceal  himself  in  the  chimney  of  the  chamber.* 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  energetic  warmth  with  which  the 
two  illustrious  friends  reciprocally  endeavored  to  turn  each 
other  from  their  respective  line  of  conduct;  but  in  vain. 
Egmont's  fatal  confidence  in  the  king  was  not  to  be  shaken ; 
nor  was  Nassau's  penetrating  mind  to  be  deceived  by  the 
romantic  delusion  which  led  away  his  friend.  They  sepa- 
rated with  most  affectionate  expressions ;  and  Nassau  was 
even  moved  to  tears.  His  parting  words  were  to  the  follow- 
ing effect : — "  Confide,  then,  since  it  must  be  so,  in  the  grati- 
tude of  the  king ;  but  a  painful  presentiment  (God  grant  it 
may  prove  a  false  one!)  tells  me  that  you  will  serve  the 
Spaniards  as  the  bridge  by  which  they  will  enter  the  country, 
and  which  they  will  destroy  as  soon  as  they  have  passed 
over  it  !"t 

On  the  11th  of  April,  a  few  days  after  this  conference,  the 
prince  of  Orange  set  out  for  Germany,  with  his  three  bro- 
thers and  his  whole  family,  with  the  exception  of  his  eldest 
son  Philip  William  count  de  Beuren,  whom  he  left  behind  a 
student  in  the  university  of  Lou  vain.  He  believed  that  the 
privileges  of  the  college  and  the  franchises  of  Brabant  would 
prove  a  sufficient  protection  to  the  youth ;  and  this  appears 
the  only  instance  in  which  William's  vigilant  prudence  was 
deceived.|  The  departure  of  the  prince  seemed  to  remove  all 
hope  of  protection  or  support  from  the  unfortunate  Pro- 
testants, now  left  the  prey  of  their  implacable  tyrant.  The 
confederation  of  the  nobles  was  completely  broken  up.  The 
counts  of  Hoogstraeten,  Bergen,  and  Culembourg,  followed  the 
example  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  escaped  to  Germany ; 
and  the  greater  number  of  those  who  remained  behind  took 
the  new  oath  of  allegiance,  and  became  reconciled  to  the 
government.  5 

This  total  dispersion  of  the  confederacy  brought  all  the 
towns  of  Holland  into  obedience  to  the  king.     But  the  emi- 

*  Schiller.  f  Vandervynct.  J  Schiller.  §  Schiller. 


1567.  THE  DUKE  OF  ALVA.  115 

gration  which  immediately  commenced  threatened  the  coun- 
try with  ruin.  England  and  Germany  swarmed  with  Dutch  and 
Belgian  refugees ;  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  governant  could 
not  restrain  the  thousands  that  took  to  flight.  She  was  not 
more  successful  in  her  attempts  to  influence  the  measures  of 
the  king.  She  implored  him,  in  repeated  letters,  to  abandon 
his  design  of  sending  a  foreign  army  into  the  country,  which 
she  represented  as  being  now  quite  reduced  to  submission 
and  tranquillity.  She  added,  that  the  mere  report  of  this 
royal  invasion  (so  to  call  it)  had  already  deprived  the  Nether- 
lands of  many  thousands  of  its  best  inhabitants ;  and  that  the 
appearance  of  the  troops  would  change  it  into  a  desert. 
These  arguments,  meant  to  dissuade,  were  the  very  means 
of  encouraging  Philip  in  his  design.  He  conceived  his  pro- 
ject to  be  now  ripe  for  the  complete  suppression  of  freedom ; 
and  Alva  soon  began  his  march. 

On  the  5th  of  May,  1567,  this  celebrated  captain,  whose 
reputation  was  so  quickly  destined  to  sink  into  the  notoriety 
of  an  executioner,  began  his  memorable  march ;  and  on  the 
22d  of  August,  he,  with  his  two  natural  sons,  and  his  veteran 
army  consisting  of  about  15,000  men,  arrived  at  the  walls  of 
Brussels.*  The  discipline  observed  on  this  march  was  a  ter- 
rible forewarning  to  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  of  the  in- 
fluence of  the  general  and  the  obedience  of  the  troops.  They 
had  little  chance  of  resistance  against  such  soldiers  so  com- 
manded. 

Several  of  the  Belgian  nobility  went  forward  to  meet  Alva, 
to  render  him  the  accustomed  honors,  and  endeavor  thus  early 
to  gain  his  good  graces.  Among  them  was  the  infatuated 
Egmont,  who  made  a  present  to  Alva  of  two  superb  horses, 
which  the  latter  received  with  a  disdainful  air  of  condescen- 
sion.! Alva's  first  care  was  the  distribution  of  his  troops — 
several  thousands  of  whom  were  placed  in  Antwerp,  Ghent, 
and  other  important  tow^ns,  and  the  remainder  reserved  under 
his  own  immediate  orders  at  Brussels.  His  approach  w^as 
celebrated  by  universal  terror ;  and  his  arrival  w^as  thoroughly 
humiliating  to  the  duchess  of  Parma.  He  immediately  pro- 
duced his  commission  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  royal 
armies  in  the  Netherlands ;  but  he  next  showed  her  another, 
which  confided  to  him  powers  infinitely  more  extended  than 
any  Marguerite  herself  had  enjoyed,  and  w^hich  proved  to  her 
that  the  almost  sovereign  power  over  the  country  was  virtu- 
ally vested  in  him. 

Alva  first  turned  his  attention  to  the  seizure  of  those  pa- 

*  Bentivoglio.  t  Schiller. 


116  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1567. 

triot  lords  whose  pertinacious  infatuation  left  them  within  his 
reach.  He  summoned  a  meeting  of  all  the  members  of  the 
council  of  state  and  the  knig-hts  of  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  to  deliberate  on  matters  of  great  importance.  Counts 
Egmont  and  Horn  attended,  among  many  others ;  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  council  they  were  both  arrested  (some 
historians  assert  by  the  hands  of  Alva  and  his  eldest  son,*)  as 
was  also  Van  Straeten  burgomaster  of  Antwerp,  and  Casam- 
brot,  Egmont's  secretary.  The  young  count  of  Mansfield 
appeared  for  a  moment  at  this  meeting ;  but,  warned  by  his 
father  of  the  fate  intended  him,  as  an  original  member  of  the 
confederation,  he  had  time  to  fly.  The  count  of  Hoogstraeten 
was  happily  detained  by  illness,  and  thus  escaped  the  fate  of 
his  friends.  Egmont  and  Horn  were  transferred  to  the  cita- 
del of  Ghent,  under  an  escort  of  3000  Spanish  soldiers.  Sev- 
eral other  persons  of  the  first  families  were  arrested ;  and 
those  who  had  originally  been  taken  in  arms  were  executed 
without  delay. f 

The  next  measures  of  the  new  governor  were  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  the  inquisition,  the  promulgation  of  the  decrees 
of  the  council  of  Trent,  the  revocation  of  the  duchess  of 
Parma's  edicts,  and  the  royal  refusal  to  recognize  the  terms 
of  her  treaties  with  the  Protestants.  He  immediately  estab- 
lished a  special  tribunal,  composed  of  twelve  members,  with 
full  powers  to  inquire  into  and  pronounce  judgment  on  every 
circumstance  connected  with  the  late  troubles.  He  named  him- 
self president  of  this  council,  and  appointed  a  Spaniard,  named 
Vargas,  as  vice-president — a  wretch  of  the  most  diabolical 
cruelty.  Several  others  of  the  judges  were  also  Spaniards, 
in  direct  infraction  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  country. 
This  council,  immortalized  by  its  infamy,  was  named  by  the 
new  governor  (for  so  Alva  was  in  fact,  though  not  yet  in 
name,)  the  Council  of  Troubles.  By  the  people  it  was  soon 
designed  the  Council  of  Blood.  In  its  atrocious  proceedings 
no  respect  was  paid  to  titles,  contracts,  or  privileges,  how- 
ever sacred.  Itsjudgments  were  without  appeal.  Every  subject 
of  the  state  was  amenable  to  its  summons ;  clergy  and  laity, 
the  first  individuals  of  the  country,  as  well  as  the  most 
wretched  outcasts  of  society.  Its  decrees  were  passed  with 
disgusting  rapidity  and  contempt  of  form.  Contumacy  was 
punished  with  exile  and  confiscation.  Those  who,  strong  in 
innocence,  dared  to  brave  a  trial,  were  lost  without  resource. 
The  accused  were  forced  to  its  bar  without  previous  warn- 
ing.    Many  a  wealthy  citizen  was  dragged  to  trial  four 

*  Strada.  Vandervynct.  t  Schiller. 


!l567.  ALVA's    TYRxlNNY.  117 

leagues'  distance,  tied  to  a  horse's  tail.  The  number  of  vic- 
'-  tims  was  appalling".  On  one  occasion,  the  town  of  Valen- 
I  ciennes  alone  saw  fifly-five  of  its  citizens  fall  by  the  hands 
of  the  executioner.  Hanging,  beheading,  quartering,  and 
burning,  were  the  e very-day  spectacles.  The  enormous  con- 
;  liscations  only  added  to  the  thirst  for  gold  and  blood  by  which 
;  Alva  and  his  satellites  were  parched.  History  offers  no  ex- 
1  ample  of  parallel  horrors :  for  while  party  vengeance  on 
i  other  occasions  has  led  to  scenes  of  fury  and  terror,  they 
I  arose,  in  this  instance,  from  the  vilest  cupidity  and  the  most 
'  cold-blooded  cruelty.* 

i  After  three  months  of  such  atrocity,  Alva,  fatigued  rather 
i  than  satiated  with  butchery,  resigned  his  hateful  functions 
I  wholly  into  the  hands  of  Vargas,  who  was  chiefly  aided  by 
:  the  members  Delrio  and  Dela  Torre.  Even  at  this  remote 
;  period  we  cannot  repress  the  indignation  excited  by  the  men- 
\  lion  of  those  monsters,  and  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  satis- 
;  faction  in  fixing  upon  their  names  the  brand  of  historic  exe- 
1  cration.  One  of  these  wretches,  called  Hesselts,  used  at 
I  length  to  sleep  during  the  mock  trials  of  the  already  doomed 
I  victims ;  and  as  often  as  he  was  roused  up  by  his  colleagues, 
i  he  used  to  cry  out  mechanically,  "  To  the  gibbet !  to  the 
i  gibbet ! "  so  familiar  was  his  tongue  with  the  sounds  of  con- 
\  demnation.f 

1  The  despair  of  the  people  may  be  imagined  from  the  fact, 
i  that  until  the  end  of  the  year  1567  their  only  consolation  was 
I  the  prospect  of  the  king's  arrival !  He  never  dreamt  of  com- 
!  ing.  Even  the  delight  of  feasting  in  horrors  like  these  could 
I  not  conquer  his  indolence.  The  good  duchess  of  Parma, — for 
'  so  she  was  in  comparison  with  her  successor, — was  not  long 
I  left  to  oppose  the  feeble  barrier  of  her  prayers  between  Alva 
!  and  his  victims.  She  demanded  her  dismissal  from  the  nomi- 
i  nal  dignity,  which  was  now  but  a  title  of  disgrace.  Philip 
t  granted  it  readily,  accompanied  by  a  hypocritical  letter,  a 
present  of  30,000  crowns,  and  the  promise  of  an  annual  pen- 
i  sion  of  20,000  more.  She  left  Brussels  in  the  month  of  April, 
.  1568,5:  raised  to  a  high  place  in  the  esteem  and  gratitude  of  the 
'  people,  less  by  any  actual  claims  from  her  own  conduct,  than 
by  its  fortuitous  contrast  with  the  infamy  of  her  successor. 
!  She  retired  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Naples  in  the  month  of  Feb* 
;ruary,  1586-5 

Ferdinand  Alvarez  de  Toledo  duke  of  Alva  was  of  a  dis- 
tinguished family  in  Spain,  and  even  boasted  of  his  descent 
from  one  of  the  Moorish  monarchs  who  had  reigned  in  the 

*  Schiller.  f  Idem.  |  DeThou.  §  Vandcrvynct. 


118  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1508. 

insignificant  kingdom  of  Toledo.  When  he  assumed  the 
chief  command  in  the  Netherlands,  he  was  sixty  years  of 
age ;  having  grown  old  and  obdurate  in  pride,  ferocity,  and 
avarice.  His  deeds  must  stand  instead  of  a  more  detailed 
portrait,  which,  to  be  thoroughly  striking,  should  be  traced 
with  a  pen  dipped  in  blood.  He  was  a  fierce  and  clever  sol- 
dier, brought  up  in  the  school  of  Charles  V.,  and  trained  to 
his  profession  in  the  wars  of  that  monarch  in  Germany,  and 
subsequently  in  that  of  Philip  11.  against  France.*  In  addi- 
tion to  the  horrors  acted  by  the  council  of  blood,  Alva  com- 
mitted many  deeds  of  collateral  but  minor  tyranny :  among 
others,  he  issued  a  decree  forbidding,  under  severe  penalties, 
any  inhabitant  of  the  country  to  marry  without  his  express 
permission.  His  furious  edicts  against  emigration  were  at- 
tempted to  be  enforced  in  vain.  Elizabeth  of  England  opened 
all  the  ports  of  her  kingdom  to  the  Flemish  refugees,!  who 
carried  with  them  those  abundant  stores  of  manufacturing 
knowledge  which  she  wisely  knew  to  be  the  elements  of  na- 
tional wealth. 

Alva  soon  summoned  the  prince  of  Orange,  his  brothers, 
and  all  the  confederate  lords,  to  appear  before  the  council 
and  answer  to  the  charge  of  high  treason.  The  prince  gave 
a  prompt  and  contemptuous  answer,  denying  the  authority 
of  Alva  and  his  council,  and  acknowledging  for  his  judges 
only  the  emperor,  whose  vassal  he  was,  or  the  king  of  Spain 
in  person,  as  president  of  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
The  other  lords  made  replies  nearly  similar.  The  trials  of 
each  were,  therefore,  proceeded  on,  by  contumacy ;  confisca- 
tion of  property  being  an  object  almost  as  dear  to  the  tyrant 
viceroy  as  the  death  of  his  victims.  Judgments  were  promptly 
pronounced  against  those  present  or  absent,  alive  or  dead. 
Witness  the  case  of  the  unfortunate  marquess  of  Bergues,  who 
had  previously  expired  at  Madrid,  as  was  universally  believ- 
ed, by  poison ;  and  his  equally  ill-fated  colleague  in  the  em- 
bassy, the  baron  Montigny,  was  for  a  while  imprisoned  at 
Segovia,  where  he  was  soon  after  secretly  beheaded,  on  the 
base  pretext  of  former  disaffection.  J 

The  departure  of  the  duchess  of  Parma  having  left  Alva 
undisputed  as  well  as  unlimited  authority,  he  proceeded 
rapidly  in  his  terrible  career.  The  count  of  Beuren  was 
seized  at  Louvain,  and  sent  prisoner  to  Madrid ;  and  wherever 
it  was  possible  to  lay  hands  on  a  suspected  patriot,  the 
occasion  was  not  neglected.  It  would  be  a  revolting  task  to 
enter  into  a  minute  detail  of  all  the  horrors  committed,  and 

*  Vandervynct.  j  Van  Meteren.  |  Vandervynct. 


1568.        HORRORS    OF   ALVa's    ADMINISTRATION.  119 

impossible  to  record  the  names  of  the  victims  who  so  quickly 
fell  before  Alva's  insatiate  cruelty.  The  people  were  driven 
to  frenzy.  Bands  of  wretches  fled  to  the  woods  and  marshes ; 
whence,  half  famished  and  perishing^  for  want,  they  revenged 
themselves  with  pillage  and  murder.  Pirates  infested  and 
ravaged  the  coast; 'and  thus,  from  both  sea  and  land,  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Netherlands  was  devoted  to  carnage  and 
ruin.*  The  chronicles  of  Brabant  and  Holland,!  chiefly 
written  in  Flemish  by  contemporary  authors,  abound  in 
\  thrilling  details  of  the  horrors  of  this  general  desolation,  with 
long  lists  of  those  who  perished.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  on 
the  recorded  boast  of  Alva  himself,  he  caused  18,000  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Low  Countries  to  perish  by  the  hands  of  the  exe- 
cutioner, during  his  less  than  six  years'  sovereignty  in  the 
Netherlands,  t 

The  most  important  of  these  tragical  scenes  was  now  soon 
to  be  acted.  The  counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  having  submit- 
ted to  some  previous  interrogatories  by  Vargas  and  others, 
,were  removed  from  Ghent  to  Brussels,  on  the  3d  of  June, 
iunder  a  strong  escort.  The  following  day  they  passed  through 
the  mockery  of  a  trial  before  the  council  of  blood  ;  and  on  the 
5th,  they  were  both  beheaded  in  the  great  square  of  Brussels, 
lin  the  presence  of  Alva,  who  gloated  on  the  spectacle  from  a 
balcony  that  commanded  the  execution.  The  same  day  Van- 
straelen  and  Casambrot  shared  the  fate  of  their  illustrious 
!  friends,  in  the  castle  of  Vilvorde;  with  many  others,  whose 
Thames  only  find  a  place  in  the  local  chronicles  of  the  times. 
1  Egmont  and  Horn  met  their  fate  with  the  firmness  expected 

i^jfrom  their  well-proved  courage. 
These  judicial  murders  excited  in  the  Netherlands  an  agi- 
tation without  bounds.  It  was  no  longer  hatred  or  aversion 
I  that  filled  men's  minds,  but  fury  and  despair.!  TJ'he  out-burst- 
ing  of  a  general  revolt  was  hourly  watched  for.  The  foreign 
loowers,  without  exception,  expressed  their  disapproval  of 
[hese  executions.  The  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  all  the 
(Uatholic  princes,  condemned  them.  The  former  sent  his 
f  )rother  expressly  to  the  king  of  Spain,  to  warn  him,  that 
^  vithout  a  cessation  of  his  cruelties,  he  could  not  restrain  a 
.1  ifeneral  declaration  from  the  members  of  the  empire,  which 
I  y-ould,  in  all  likelihood,  deprive  him  of  every  acre  of  land  in 
|!he  Netherlands.}  The  princes  of  the  Protestant  states  held 
k  \o  terms  in  the  expression  of  their  disgust  and  resentment ; 
^  ind  every  thing  seemed  now  ripe,  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
>  jo  favor  the  enterprise  on  which  the  prince  of  Orange  was 

*  Vandervynct.      j  Batavia  illustrated.      |  Grotius.       §  Vandervynct. 


) 


120  HISTORY    OF   TILE    NETHERLANDS.  1568. 

determined  to  risk  his  fortune  and  his  life.  But  his  principal 
resources  were  to  be  found  in  his  genius  and  courage,  and  in 
the  heroic  devotion  partaken  by  his  whole  family  in  the  cause 
of  their  country.  His  brother,  count  John,  advanced  him  a 
considerable  sum  of  money ;  the  Flemings  and  Hollanders,  in 
England  and  elsewhere,  subscribed  largely ;  the  prince  him- 
self after  raising  loans  in  every  possible  way  on  his  private 
means,  sold  his  jewels,  his  plate,  and  even  the  furniture  of 
his  houses,  and  threw  the  amount  into  the  common  fund. 

Two  remarkable  events  took  place  this  year  in  Spain,  and 
added  to  the  general  odium  entertained  against  Philip's  char- 
acter throughout  Europe.  The  first  was  the  death  of  his  son 
don  Carlos,  whose  sad  story  is  too  well  known  in  connexion 
with  the  annals  of  his  country  to  require  a  place  here ;  the 
other  was  the  death  of  the  queen.  Universal  opinion  assigned 
poison  as  the  cause  ;*  and  Charles  IX.  of  France,  her  brother, 
who  loved  her  with  great  tenderness,  seems  to  have  joined  in 
this  belief  Astonishment  and  horror  filled  all  minds  on  the 
double  denouement  of  this  romantic  tragedy ;  and  the  enemies 
of  the  tyrant  reaped  all  the  advantages  it  was  so  well  adapted 
to  produce  them. 

The  prince  of  Orange,  liaving  raised  a  considerable  force 
in  Germany,  now  entered  on  the  war  with  all  the  well-di- 
rected energy  by  which  he  was  characterized.  The  queen 
of  England,  the  French  Huguenots,  and  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany,  all  lent  him  their  aid  in  money  or  in  men ;  and 
he  opened  his  first  campaign  with  great  advantage.  He 
formed  his  army  into  four  several  corps,  intending  to  enter 
the  country  on  as  many  different  points,  and  by  a  sudden  ir- 
ruption on  that  most  vulnerable  to  rouse  at  once  the  hopes 
and  the  co-operation  of  the  people.  His  brothers  Louis  and 
Adolphus,  at  the  head  of  one  of  these  divisions,  penetrated 
into  Friesland,  and  there  commenced  the  contest.  The  count 
of  Aremberg,  governor  of  this  province,  assisted  by  the  Span- 
ish troops  under  Gonsalvo  de  Bracamonte,  quickly  opposed 
the  invaders.  They  met  on  the  24th  of  May  near  the  abbey 
of  Heiligerlee,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  battle ;  and  after 
a  short  contest  the  royalists  were  defeated  with  great  loss. 
The  count  of  Aremberg  and  Adolphus  of  Nassau  encountered 
in  single  combat,  and  fell  by  each  other's  hands.f  The  vic- 
tory was  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  this  gallant  prince, 
the  first  of  his  illustrious  family,  who  have  on  so  many  occa- 
sions, down  to  these  very  days,  freely  shed  their  blood  for  the 

*  Vandervynct.  f  Strada. 


1568.  DISASTERS    OF    THE    PATRIOTS.  121 

freedom  and  happiness  of  tlie  country  which  may  be  so  em- 
phatically called  their  own. 

Alva  immediately  hastened  to  the  scene  of  this  first  action, 
and  soon  forced  count  Louis  to  another  at  a  place  called  Jem- 
minghem,  near  the  town  of  Embden,  on  the  21st  of  July. 
Their  forces  were  nearly  equal,  about  14,000  on  either  side ; 
but  all  the  advantage  of  discipline  and  skill  was  in  favor  of 
Alva ;  and  the  consequence  was,  the  total  rout  of  the  patriots 
with  a  considerable  loss  in  killed  and  the  whole  of  the  cannon 
and  baggage.  The  entire  province  of  Friesland  was  thus 
again  reduced  to  obedience,  and  Alva  hastened  back  to  Bra- 
bant to  make  head  against  the  prince  of  Orange.  The  latter 
had  now  under  his  command  an  army  of  28,000  men, — an 
imposing  force  in  point  of  numbers,  being  double  that  which 
his  rival  was  able  to  muster.  He  soon  made  himself  master 
of  the  towns  of  Tongres  and  St.  Trend,  and  the  whole  prov- 
ince of  Liege  was  in  his  power.  He  advanced  boldly  against 
Alva,  and  for  several  months  did  all  that  manoeuvring  could 
do  to  force  him  to  a  battle.  But  the  wily  veteran  knew  his 
trade  too  well ;  he  felt  sure  that  in  time  the  prince's  force 
would  disperse  for  want  of  pay  and  supplies ;  and  he  managed 
his  resources  so  ably,  that  with  little  risk  and  scarcely  any 
loss  he  finally  succeeded  in  his  object.  In  the  month  of  Oc- 
tober the  prince  found  himself  forced  to  disband  his  large  but 
undisciplined  force ;  and  he  retired  into  France  to  recruit  his 
funds  and  consider  on  the  best  measures  for  some  future  en- 
terprise. 

The  insolent  triumph  of  Alva  knew  no  bounds.  The  rest 
of  the  year  was  consumed  in  new  executions.  The  hotel  of 
Culembourg,  the  early  cradle  of  De  Brederode's  confederacy, 
was  rased  to  the  ground,  and  a  pillar  erected  on  the  spot 
commemorative  of  the  deed  ;  while  Alva,  resolved  to  erect  a 
monument  of  his  success  as  well  as  of  his  hate,  had  his  own 
statue  in  brass,  formed  of  the  cannons  taken  at  Jemminghem, 
set  up  in  the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  with  various  symbols  of 
power  and  an  inscription  of  inflated  pride. 

The  following  year  was  ushered  in  by  a  demand  of  un- 
wonted and  extravagant  rapacity ;  the  establishment  of  two 
taxes  on  property,  personal  and  real,  to  the  amount  of  the 
hundredth  penny  (or  denier)  on  each  kind;  and  at  every 
transfer  or  sale,  ten  per  cent,  on  personal,  and  five  per  cent, 
for  real  property.  The  states-general,  of  whom  this  demand 
was  made,  were  unanimous  in  their  opposition,  as  well  as  the 
ministers ;  but  particularly  De  Berlaimont  and  Viglius.  Alva 
was  so  irritated  that  he  even  menaced  the  venerable  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  but  could  not  succeed  in  intimidating 

L 


122  HISTORY    OF   THE    NEIHERLANDS.  1570. 

him.  He  obstinately  persisted  in  his  design  for  a  considera- 
ble period ;  resisting  arguments  and  prayers,  and  even  the 
more  likely  means  tried  for  softening  his  cupidity,  by  fur- 
nishing him  with  sums  from  other  sources  equivalent  to  those 
which  the  new  taxes  were  calculated  to  produce  *  To  his 
repeated  threats  against  Viglius  the  latter  replied,  that  "  he 
was  convinced  the  king  would  not  condemn  him  unheard ; 
but  that  at  any  rate  his  gray  hairs  saved  him  from  any  ignoble 
fear  of  death."t 

A  deputation  was  sent  from  the  states-general  to  Philip, 
explaining  the  impossibility  of  persevering  in  the  attempted 
taxes,  which  were  incompatible  with  every  principle  of  com- 
mercial liberty.J  But  Alva  would  not  abandon  his  design  till 
he  had  forced  every  province  into  resistance,  and  the  king 
himself  commanded  him  to  desist.  The  events  of  this  and 
the  following  year  (1570)  may  be  shortly  summed  up ;  none 
of  any  striking  interest  or  eventual  importance  having  oc- 
curred. The  sufferings  of  the  country  were  increasing  from 
day  to  day  under  the  intolerable  tyranny  which  bore  it  down. 
The  patriots  attempted  nothing  on  land ;  but  their  naval  force 
began  from  this  time  to  acquire  that  consistency  and  power 
which  was  so  soon  to  render  it  the  chief  means  of  resistance 
and  the  great  source  of  wealth.  The  privateers  or  corsairs, 
which  began  to  swarm  from  every  port  in  Holland  and  Zea- 
land, and  which  found  refuge  in  all  those  of  England,  sullied 
many  gallant  exploits  by  instances  of  culpable  excess ;  so 
much  so,  that  the  prince  of.  Orange  was  forced  to  withdraw 
the  command  which  he  had  delegated  to  the  lord  of  Dolhain, 
and  to  replace  him  by  Gislain  de  Fiennes :  for  already  seve- 
ral of  the  exiled  nobles  and  ruined  merchants  of  Antwerp 
and  Amsterdam  had  joined  these  bold  adventurers ;  and  pur- 
chased or  built,  with  the  remnant  of  their  fortunes,  many 
vessels,  in  which  they  carried  on  a  most  productive  warfare 
against  Spanish  commerce  through  the  whole  extent  of  the 
English  channel,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Embs  to  the  harbor 
of  La  Rochelle.j 

One  of  those  frightful  inundations  to  which  the  northern 
provinces  were  so  constantly  exposed,  occurred  this  year, 
carrying  away  the  dikes,  and  destroying  lives  and  property 
to  a  considerable  amount.  In  Friesland  alori«  20,000  men 
were  victims  to  this  calamity.  But  no  suffering  could  affect 
the  inflexible  sternness  of  the  duke  of  Alva ;  and  to  such 
excess  did  he  carry  his  persecution,  that  Philip  himself  be- 

*  Vandervynct.  t  Viglii  Comment,  p.  307. 

X  De  Neny,  M6m.  Hist,  et  Pol.  surlesPays  Bas.  §  Vandervynct. 


1572.  LA    CERDA's    APPOIiNTMENT.  123 

gan  to  be  discontented,  and  thought  his  representative  was 
overstepping  the  bounds  of  delegated  tyranny.  He  even  re- 
proached him  sharply  in  some  of  his  dispatches.  The  gov- 
ernor replied  in  the  same  strain ;  and  such  was  the  effect  of 
this  correspondence,  that  Philip  resolved  to  remove  him  from 
his  command.  But  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne  of  Aus- 
tria, daughter  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  obliged  him  to 
defer  his  intentions  for  a  while ;  and  he  at  length  named 
John  de  la  Cerda,  duke  of  Medina-Celi,  for  Alva's  successor. 
Upwards  of  a  year,  however,  elapsed  before  this  new  govern- 
or was  finally  appointed;  and  he  made  his  appearance  on 
the  coast  of  Flanders  with  a  considerable  fleet,  on  the  11th 
of  May,  1572.  He  was  afforded  on  this  very  day  a  specimen 
of  the  sort  of  people  he  came  to  contend  with ;  for  his  fleet 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  that  of  the  patriots,  and  many  of 
his  vessels  burned  and  taken  before  his  eyes,  with  their  rich 
cargoes  and  considerable  treasures  intended  for  the  service 
of  the  state.* 

The  duke  of  Medina-Celi  proceeded  rapidly  to  Brussels, 
where  he  was  ceremoniously  received  by  Alva,  who  however 
refused  to  resign  the  government,  under  the  pretext  that  the 
term  of  his  appointment  had  not  expired,  and  that  he  was 
resolved  first  to  completely  suppress  all  symptoms  of  revolt 
in  the  northern  provinces.  He  succeeded  in  effectually  dis- 
gusting La  Cerda,  who  almost  immediately  demanded  and 
obtamed  his  own  recall  to  Spain.  Alva,  left  once  more  in 
undisputed  possession  of  his  power,  turned  it  with  increased 
vigor  into  new  channels  of  oppression.  He  was  soon  again 
employed  in  efl^orts  to  effect  the  levying  of  his  favorite  taxes; 
and  such  was  the  resolution  of  the  tradesmen  of  Brussels, 
that,  sooner  than  submit,  they  almost  universally  closed  their 
shops  altogether.  Alva,  furious  at  this  measure,  caused  sixty 
of  the  citizens  to  be  seized,  and  ordered  them  to  be  hanged 
opposite  their  own  doors.  The  gibbets  were  actually  erected, 
when,  on  the  very  morning  of  the  day  fixed  for  the  execu- 
tions, he  received  dispatches  that  w^holly  disconcerted  him, 
and  stopped  their  completion.! 

To  avoid  an  open  rupture  with  Spain,  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land had  just  at  this  time  interdicted  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
privateers  from  taking  shelter  in  her  ports.  William  de  la 
Marck  count  of  Lunoy  had  now  the  chief  command  of  this 
adventurous  force.  He  was  distinguished  by  an  inveterate 
hatred  against  the  Spaniards,  and  had  made  a  wild  and  ro- 
mantic vow  never  to  cut  his  hair  or  beard  till  he  had  avenged 

*  Vandervynct.  t  Mem. 


124  HISTORY    OP   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1572. 

the  murders  of  Egmont  and  Horn.  He  was  impetuous  and 
terrible  in  all  his  actions,  and  bore  the  surname  of  "  the  wild 
boar  of  the  Ardennes."  Driven  out  of  the  harbors  of  Eng- 
land, he  resolved  on  some  desperate  enterprise ;  and  on  the 
1st  of  April  he  succeeded  in  surprising  the  little  town  of 
Brille,  in  the  island  of  Voorn,  situate  between  Zealand  and 
Holland.  This  insignificant  place  acquired  great  celebrity 
from  this  event,  which  may  be  considered  the  first  successful 
step  towards  the  establishment  of  liberty  and  the  republic* 

Alva  was  confounded  by  the  news  of  this  exploit,  but  with 
his  usual  activity  he  immediately  turned  his  whole  attention 
towards  the  point  of  greatest  danger.  His  embarrassment, 
however,  became  every  day  more  considerable.  Lunoy's 
success  was  the  signal  of  a  general  revolt.  In  a  few  days 
every  town  in  Holland  and  Zealand  declared  for  liberty, 
with  the  exception  of  Amsterdam  and  Middleburg,  where 
the  Spanish  garrisons  were  too  strong  for  the  people  to  at- 
tempt their  expulsion. 

The  prince  of  Orange,  who  had  been  on  the  watch  for  a 
favorable  moment,  now  entered  Brabant  at  the  head  of  20,000 
men,  composed  of  French,  German,  and  English,  and  made 
himself  master  of  several  important  places ;  while  his  inde- 
fatigable brother  Louis,  with  a  minor  force,  suddenly  appeared 
in  Hainault,  and,  joined  by  a  large  body  of  French  Huguenots 
under  De  Genlis,  he  seized  on  Mons,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, on  the  25th  of  May. 

Alva  turned  first  towards  the  recovery  of  this  important 
place,  and  gave  the  command  of  the  siege  to  his  son  Frederic 
of  Toledo,  who  was  assisted  by  the  counsels  of  *  Noircarmes 
and  Vitelli ;  but  Louis  of  Nassau  held  out  for  upwards  of  - 
three  months,  and  only  surrendered  on  an  honorable  capitu- 
lation in  the  month  of  September ;  his  French  allies  having 
been  first  entirely  defeated,  and  their  brave  leader  De  Genlis 
taken  prisoner.  The  prince  of  Orange  had  in  the  mean  time 
secured  possession  of  Louvaine,  Ruremonde,  Mechlin,  and 
other  towns,  carried  Termonde  and  Oudenarde  by  assault, 
and  made  demonstrations  which  seemed  to  court  Alva  once 
more  to  try  the  fortune  of  the  campaign  in  a  pitched  battle. 
But  such  were  not  William's  real  intentions,!  nor  did  the 
cautious  tactics  of  his  able  opponent  allow  him  to  provoke 
such  a  risk.  He,  however,  ordered  his  son  Frederic  to  march 
with  all  his  force  into  Holland,  and  he  soon  undertook  the 
siege  of  Haerlem.  By  the  time  that  Mons  fell  again  into  the 
power  of  the  Spaniards,  sixty-five  towns  and  their  territories, 

»  Vandervynct.  f  Idem. 


1573.  HAERLEM    BESIEGED.  125 

chiefly  in  the  northern  provinces,  had  thrown  off  the  yoke. 
The  single  port  of  Flessingue  contained  150  patriot  vessels, 
well  armed  and  equipped  ;*  and  from  that  epoch  may  be  dated 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  first  naval  power  in  Europe,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  here  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  the  horrors  of  which 
the  people  of  Flanders  were  the  victims,  and  in  their  full 
proportion,  had  not  the  effect  of  exciting  them  to  revolt ;  but 
they  rose  up  with  fury  against  the  payment  of  the  new  taxes. 
They  sacrificed  every  thing  sooner  than  pay  these  unjust  ex- 
actions— Omnia  dabant,  ne  decimam  darant.f  The  next  im- 
portant event  in  these  wars  was  the  siege  of  Haerlem,  before 
which  place  the  Spaniards  were  arrested  in  their  progress 
for  seven  months,  and  which  they  at  length  succeeded  in 
taking  with  a  loss  of  10,000  men. 

The  details  of  this  memorable  siege  are  calculated  to 
arouse  every  feeling  of  pity  for  the  heroic  defenders,  and  of 
execration  against  the  cruel  assailants.  A  widow,  named 
Kenau  Hasselaer,  gained  a  niche  in  history  by  her  remark- 
able valor  at  the  head  of  a  battalion  of  300  of  her  townswo- 
men,  who  bore  a  part  in  all  the  labors  and  perils  of  the  siege.  J 
After  the  surrender,  and  in  pursuance  of  Alva's  common  sys- 
tem, his  ferocious  son  caused  the  governor  and  the  other 
chief  officers  to  be  beheaded ;  and  upwards  of  2000  of  the 
worn-out  garrison  and  burghers  were  either  put  to  the  sword, 
or  tied  two  and  two,  and  drowned  in  the  lake  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  town.  5  Tergoes  in  South  Beveland,  Mechlin, 
Naerden,  and  other  towns,  were  about  the  same  period  the 
scenes  of  gallant  actions,  and  of  subsequent  cruelties  of  the 
most  revolting  nature  as  soon  as  they  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  Spaniards.il  Horrors  like  these  were  sure  to  force  repri- 
sals on  the  part  of  the  maddened  patriots.  De  la  Marck 
carried  on  his  daring  exploits  with  a  cruelty  which  excited 
the  indignation  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  by  whom  he  was 
removed  from  his  command.  The  contest  was  for  a  while 
prosecuted,  with  a  decrease  of  vigor  proportioned  to  the 
serious  losses  on  both  sides ;  money  and  the  munitions  of 
war  began  to  fail ;  and  though  the  Spaniards  succeeded  in 
taking  the  Hague,  they  w^ere  repulsed  before  Alkmaer  with 
great  loss,  and  their  fleet  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  a 
naval  combat  on  the  Zuyder  Zee.     The  count  Bossu,  their 


*  Cerisier.  f  Grotius.  |  Strada.  §  Bentivoglio. 

IfStrada,  with  all  his  bigotry  to  the  Spanish  cause,  admits  that  these  ex- 
cesses were  atrocious  crimes  rather  than  just  punishments:  non  peena,  scd 
flagitium. 

L 


126  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1573. 

admiral,  was  taken  in  this  fight,  with  about  300  of  his  best 
sailors. 

Holland  was  now  from  one  end  to  the  other  the  theatre  of 
the  most  shocking  events.  While  the  people  performed  deeds 
of  the  greatest  heroism,  the  perfidy  and  cruelty  of  the  Span- 
iards had  no  bounds.  The  patriots  saw  more  danger  in  sub- 
mission than  in  resistance  ;  each  town,  which  was  in  succes- 
sion subdued,  endured  the  last  extremities  of  suffering  before 
it  yielded,  and  victory  was  frequently  the  consequence  of 
despair.*  This  unlooked-for  turn  in  affairs  decided  the  king 
to  remove  Alva,  whose  barbarous  and  rapacious  conduct 
was  now  objected  to  even  by  Philip,  when  it  produced  re- 
sults disastrous  to  his  cause.  Don  Luis  Zanega  y  Requesens, 
commander  of  the  order  of  Malta,  was  named  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Netherlands.  He  arrived  at  Brussels  on  the 
17th  of  November,  1573 ;  and  on  the  18th  of  the  following 
month,  the  monster  whom  he  succeeded  set  out  for  Spain, 
loaded  with  the  booty  to  which  he  had  waded  through  oceans 
of  blood,  and  with  the  curses  of  the  country,  which,  how- 
ever, owed  its  subsequent  freedom  to  the  impulse  given  by 
his  intolerable  cruelty.  He  repaired  to  Spain ;  and  afler  va- 
rious fluctuations  of  favor  and  disgrace  at  the  hands  of  his 
congenial  master,  he  died  in  his  bed,  at  Lisbon,  in  1582,  at 
the  advanced  age  of  seventy-four  years. 


CHAP.  X. 
1573-^157a 

TO    THE    rACIFICATION    OF   GHENT. 

The  character  of  Requesens  was  not  more  opposed  to  that 
of  his  predecessor,  than  were  the  instructions  given  to  him 
for  his  government.  He  was  an  honest,  well-meaning,  and 
moderate  man  ;f  and  the  king  of  Spain  hoped,  that  by  his  in- 
fluence and  a  total  change  of  measures,  he  might  succeed  in 
recalling  the  Netherlands  to  obedience.  But,  happily  for  the 
country,  this  change  was  adopted  too  late  for  success ;  and 
the  weakness  of  the  new  government  completed  the  glorious 
results  which  the  ferocity  of  the  former  had  prepared. 

Requesens  performed  all  that  depended  on  him,  to  gain  the 
confidence  of  the  people.     He  caused  Alva's  statue  to  be  rc- 

*  Grotius.    Ptrada.    Bentivoglio.  t  ^^c  Thou. 


1574.  REaUESENs'    GOVERNMENT.  127 

moved ;  and  hoped  to  efface  the  memory  of  the  tyrant,  by 
dissolving  the  council  of  blood,  and  abandoning  the  obnoxious 
taxes  which  their  inventor  had  suspended  rather  than  abol- 
ished. A  general  amnesty  was  also  promulgated  against  the 
revolted  provinces :  they  received  it  with  contempt  and  defi- 
ance. Nothing  then  was  left  to  Requesens  but  to  renew  the 
war ;  and  this  he  found  to  be  a  matter  of  no  easy  execution. 
The  finances  were  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  confusion ;  and 
the  Spanish  troops  were  in  many  places  seditious,  in  some 
openly  mutinous,  Alva  having  left  large  arrears  of  pay  due 
to  almost  all,  notwithstanding  the  immense  amount  of  his 
pillage  and  extortion.*  Middleburg,  which  had  long  sus- 
tained a  siege  against  all  the  efforts  of  the  patriots,  was  now 
nearly  reduced  by  famine,  notwithstanding  the  gallant  efforts 
of  its  governor,  Mondragon.  Requesens  turned  his  imme- 
diate attention  to  the  relief  of  this  important  place ;  and  he 
soon  assembled,  at  Antwerp  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  a  fleet  of 
sixty  vessels  for  that  purpose.  But  Louis  Boisot,  admiral  of 
Zealand,  promptly  repaired  to  attack  this  force ;  and  after  a 
severe  action  he  totally  defeated  it,  and  killed  De  Glimes,  one 
of  its  admirals,  under  the  eyes  of  Requesens  himself,  who, 
accompanied  by  his  suite,  stood  during  the  whole  affair  on  the 
dike  of  Schakerloo.f  This  action  took  place  the  29th  of 
January,  1574;  and,  on  the  19th  of  February  following,  Mid- 
dleburg surrendered,  after  a  resistance  of  two  years.  The 
prince  of  Orange  granted  such  conditions  as  were  due  to  the 
bravery  of  the  governor  ;  and  thus  set  an  example  of  gene- 
rosity and  honor  which  greatly  changed  the  complexion  of 
the  war. I  All  Zealand  was  now  free ;  and  the  intrepid  ad- 
miral Boisot  gained  another  victory  on  the  30th  of  May, — 
destroying  several  of  the  Spanish  vessels,  and  taking  some 
others,  with  their  admiral  Von  Haemstede.  Frequent  naval 
enterprises  were  also  undertaken  against  the  frontiers  of 
Flanders ;  and  while  the  naval  forces  thus  harassed  the  ene- 
my on  every  Vulnerable  point,  the  unfortunate  provinces  of 
the  interior  were  ravaged  by  the  mutinous  and  revolted  Span- 
iards, and  by  the  native  brigands,  who  pillaged  both  royalists 
and  patriots  with  atrocious  impartiality. 

To  these  manifold  evils  was  now  added  one  more  terrible, 
in  the  appearance  of  the  plague,  which  broke  out  at  Ghent 
in  the  month  of  October,  and  devastated  a  great  part  of  the 
Netherlands ;  not,  however,  with  that  violence  with  which 
it  rages  in  more  southern  climates.  5 

Requesens,  overwhelmed  by  difficulties,  yet  exerted  him- 

*  Vanclervynct.  t  Idem.  X  Metercn.  §  Vandervynct. 


128  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1574. 

self  to  the  utmost  to  put  the  best  face  on  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment. His  chief  care  was  to  appease  the  mutinous  sol- 
diery :  he  even  caused  his  plate  to  be  melted,  and  freely  gave 
the  produce  towards  the  payment  of  their  arrears.  The  pa- 
triots, well  informed  of  this  state  of  things,  labored  to  turn  it 
to  their  best  advantage.  They  opened  the  campaign  in  the 
province  of  Guelders,  where  Louis  of  Nassau,  with  his 
younger  brother  Henry,  and  the  prince  Palatine,  son  of  the 
elector  Frederick  III.,  appeared  at  the  head  of  11,000  men : 
the  prince  of  Orange  prepared  to  join  him  with  an  equal 
number ;  but  Requesens  promptly  dispatched  Sanchez  d'Avila 
to  prevent  this  junction.  The  Spanish  commander  quickly 
passed  the  Meuse  near  Nimeguen ;  and  on  the  14th  of  April 
he  forced  count  Louis  to  a  battle,  on  the  great  plain  called 
Mookerheyde,  close  to  the  village  of  Mook.  The  royalists- 
attacked  with  their  usual  valor ;  and  after  two  hours  of  hard 
fighting,  the  confederates  were  totally  defeated.  The  three 
gallant  princes  were  among  the  slain,  and  their  bodies  were 
never  afterwards  discovered.  It  has  been  stated,  on  doubtful 
authority,  that  Louis  of  Nassau,  after  having  lain  some  time 
among  the  heaps  of  dead,  dragged  himself  to  the  side  of  the 
river  Meuse,  and  while  washing  his  wounds,  was  inhumanly 
murdered  by  some  straggling  peasants,  to  whom  he  was  un- 
known.* The  unfortunate  fate  of  this  enterprising  prince 
was  a  severe  blow  to  the  patriot  cause,  and  a  cruel  affliction 
to  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  had  now  already  lost  three 
brothers  in  the  war ;  and  remained  alone,  to  revenge  their 
fate,  and  sustain  the  cause  for  which  they  had  perished. 

D'Avila  soon  found  his  victory  to  be  as  fruitless  as  it  was 
brilliant.  The  ruffian  troops,  by  whom  it  was  gained,  became 
immediately  self-disbanded;  threw  off  all  authority;  hastened 
to  possess  themselves  of  Antwerp ;  and  threatened  to  proceed 
to  the  most  horrible  extremities,  if  their  pay  was  longer  with- 
held. The  citizens  succeeded  with  difficulty  in  appeasing 
them,  by  the  sacrifice  of  some  money  in  part  payment  of  their 
claims.  Requesens  took  advantage  of  their  temporary  calm, 
and  dispatched  them  promptly  to  take  part  in  the  siege  of 
Leyden.f 

This  siege  formed  another  of  those  numerous  instances 
which  became  so  memorable  from  the  mixture  of  heroism  and 
horror.  Jean  Vanderdoes,  known  in  literature  by  the  name 
of  Dousa,  and  celebrated  for  his  Latin  poems,  commanded  the 
place.  Valdez,  who  conducted  the  siege,  urged  Dousa  to  sur- 
render ;  when  the  latter  replied,  in  the  name  of  the  inhab- 

*  Haraeus  |  Vandcrvynct. 


1575.  SIEGE    OF    LEY  DEN.  129 

itants,  *'  that  when  provisions  failed  them,  they  would  devour 
tlieir  left  hands,  reserving  the  right  to  defend  their  liberty." 
A  party  of  the  inhabitants,  driven  to  disobedience  and  revolt 
by  the  excess  of  misery  to  which  they  were  shortly  reduced, 
attempted  to  force  the  burgomaster,  Vanderwerf,  to  supply 
them  with  bread,  or  yield  up  the  place.  But  he  sternly  made 
the  celebrated  answer,  which  cannot  be  remembered  without 
shuddering — "  Bread  I  have  none ;  but  if  my  death  can  af- 
ford you  relief,  tear  my  body  in  pieces,  and  let  those  who  are 
most  hungry  devour  it !" 

But  in  this  extremity  relief  at  last  was  afforded  by  the 
decisive  measures  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  ordered  all 
the  neighboring  dikes  to  be  opened  and  the  sluices  raised, 
thus  sweeping  away  the  besiegers  on  the  waves  of  the  ocean : 
the  inhabitants  of  Leyden  were  apprized  of  this  intention  by 
means  of  letters  intrusted  to  the  safe  carriage  of  pigeons 
trained  for  the  purpose.*  The  inundation  was  no  sooner 
effected,  than  hundreds  of  flat-bottomed  boats  brought  abun- 
dance of  supplies  to  the  half-famished  town ;  while  a  violent 
storm  carried  the  sea  across  the  country  for  twenty  leagues 
around,  and  destroyed  the  Spanish  camp,  with  above  1000 
soldiers,  who  were  overtaken  by  the  flood.  This  deliverance 
took  place  on  the  3d  of  October,  on  Avhich  day  it  is  still  an- 
nually celebrated  by  the  descendants  of  the  grateful  citizens.f 

It  was  now  for  the  first  time  that  Spain  would  consent  to 
listen  to  advice  or  mediation,  which  had  for  its  object  the 
termination  of  this  frightful  war.  The  emperor  Maximilian  XL 
renewed  at  this  epoch  his  efforts  with  Philip ;  and  under  such 
favorable  auspices  conferences  commenced  at  Breda,  where 
the  counts  Swartzenberg  and  Hohenloe,  brothers-in-law  of 
the  prince  of  Orange,  met,  on  the  part  of  the  emperor,  the 
deputies  from  the  king  of  Spain  and  the  patriots ;  and  hopes 
of  a  complete  pacification  were  generally  entertained.  But 
three  months  of  deliberation  proved  their  fallacy.  The 
patriots  demanded  toleration  for  the  reformed  religion.  The 
king's  deputies  obstinately  refused  it.  The  congress  was 
therefore  broken  up;  and  both  oppressors  and  oppressed 
resumed  their  arms  with  increased  vigor  and  tenfold  des- 
peration. 

Requesens  had  long  fixed  his  eyes  on  Zealand  as  the 
scene  of  an  expedition  by  which  he  hoped  to  repair  the 
failure  before  Leyden  ;  and  he  caused  an  attempt  to  be  made 
on  the  town  of  Zuriczee,  in  the  island  of  Scauwen,  which 

*  Strada.  t  Vandervynct. 


130  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1575. 

merits  record  as  one  of  thd  boldest  and  most  original  enter- 
prises of  the  war. 

The  little  islands  of  Zealand  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  narrow  branches  of  the  sea,  which  are  fordable  at  low 
water ;  and  it  was  by  such  a  passage,  two  leagues  in  breadth, 
and  till  then  untried,  that  the  Spanish  detachment  of  1750 
men,  under  Ulloa  and  other  veteran  captains,  advanced  to 
their  exploit  in  the  midst  of  dangers  greatly  increased  by  a 
night  of  total  darkness.  Each  man  carried  round  his  neck 
two  pounds  of  gunpowder,  w^ith  a  sufficient  supply  of  biscuit 
for  two  days;  and  holding  their  swords  and  muskets  high 
over  their  heads,  they  boldly  waded  forward,  three  abreast, 
in  some  places  up  to  their  shoulders  in  water.  The  alarm 
was  soon  given ;  and  a  shower  of  balls  was  poured  upon  the 
gallant  band,  from  upwards  of  forty  boats  which  the  Zea- 
landers  sent  rapidly  towards  the  spot.  The  only  light  afforded 
to  either  party  was  from  the  flashes  of  their  guns ;  and  while 
the  adventurers  advanced  with  undaunted  firmness,  their 
equally  daring  assailants,  jumping  from  their  boats  into  the 
water,  attacked  them  with  oars  and  hooked  handspikes,  by 
which  many  of  the  Spaniards  were  destroyed.  The  rear- 
guard, in  this  extremity,  cut  off"  from  their  companions,  was 
obliged  to  retreat ;  but  the  rest,  after  a  considerable  loss,  at 
length  reached  the  land,  and  thus  gained  possession  of  the 
island,  on  the  night  of  the  28th  of  September,  1575.* 

Requesens  quickly  afterwards  repaired  to  the  scene  of  this 
gallant  exploit,  and  commenced  the  siege  of  Zuriczee,  which 
he  did  not  live  to  see  completed.  After  having  passed  the 
winter  months  in  preparations  for  the  success  of  this  object 
which  he  had  so  much  at  heart,  he  was  recalled  to  Brussels 
by  accounts  of  new  mutinies  in  the  Spanish  cavalry ;  and  the 
very  evening  before  he  reached  the  city  he  was  attacked  by 
a  violent  fever,  which  carried  him  off"  five  days  afterwards, 
on  the  5th  of  March,  1576.t 

The  suddenness  of  Requesen's  illness  had  not  allowed  time 
for  even  the  nomination  of  a  successor,  to  which  he  was 
authorized  by  letters  patent  from  the  king.  It  is  believed 
that  his  intention  was  to  appoint  count  Mansfield  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  and  De  Berlaimont  to  the  administration 
of  civil  affairs. J  The  government,  however,  now  devolved 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  council  of  state,  which  was  at 
that  period  composed  of  nine  members.  The  principal  of 
these  was  Philip  de  Croi  duke  of  Arschot ;  the  other  leading 
members  were  Viglius,  counts  Mansfield  and  Berlaimont; 

*Strada.  t  B^ntivoglio.  |>Strada. 


1576.    DISASTROUS    CONDITION    OF   THE    COUNTKY.       131 

and  the  council  was  degraded  by  numbering",  among  the  rest, 
Debris  and  De  Roda,  two  of  the  notorious  Spaniards  who  had 
formed  part  of  the  council  of  blood. 

The  king  resolved  to  leave  the  authority  in  the  hands  of 
this  incongruous  mixture,  until  the  arrival  of  don  John  of 

i  Austria,  his  natural  brother,  whom  he  had  already  named  to 
the  office  of  governor-general.  But  in  the  interval  the 
government  assumed  an  aspect  of  unprecedented  disorder ; 
and  wide-spread  anarchy  embraced  the  whole  country.  The 
royal  troops  openly  revolted,  and  fought  against  each  other 
like  deadly  enemies.  The  nobles,  divided  in  their  views,  ar- 
rogated to  themselves  in  different  places  the  titles  and  powers 
of  command.     Public  faith  and  private  probity  seemed  alike 

i  destroyed.  Pillage,  violence,  and  ferocity,  were  the  com- 
monplace characteristics  of  the  times. f 

!  Circumstances  like  these  may  be  well  supposed  to  have 
revived  the  hopes  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  quickly  saw 
amidst  this  cliaos  the  elements  of  order,  strength,  and 
liberty.  Such  had  been  his  previous  affliction  at  the  harrow- 
ing events  which  he  witnessed,  and  despaired  of  being  able 
to  relieve,  that  he  had  proposed  to  the  patriots  of  Holland  and 
Zealand  to  destroy  the  dikes,  submerge  the  whole  country, 
and  abandon  to  the  waves  the  soil  which  refused  security  to 
freedom.  But  Providence  destined  him  to  be  the  savior,  in- 
stead of  the  destroyer,  of  his  country.  The  chief  motive  of  this 
excessive  desperation  had  been  the  apparent  desertion  by 
queen  Elizabeth  of  the  cause  which  she  had  hitherto  so 
mainly  assisted.  Offended  at  the  capture  of  some  English 
ships  by  the  Dutch,  who  asserted  that  they  carried  supplies 
for  the  Spaniards,  she  withdrew  from  them  her  protection : 
but  by  timely  submission  they  appeased  her  wrath ;  and  it  is 
thought  by  some  historians,  that  even  thus  early  the  prince 
of  Orange  proposed  to  place  the  revolted  provinces  wholly 
under  her  protection.  This,  however,  she  for  the  time  refused ; 
but  she  strongly  solicited  Philip's  mercy  for  these  unfortunate 
countries,  through  the  Spanish  ambassador  at  her  court. 

In  the  mean  time  the  council  of  state  at  Brussels  seemed 
disposed  to  follow  up  as  far  as  possible  the  plans  of  Requesens. 
The. siege  of  Zuriczee  was  continued ;  but  speedy  dissensions 
among  the  members  of  the  government  rendered  their  au- 
thority contemptible,  if  not  utterly  extinct,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
people.  The  exhaustion  of  the  treasury  deprived  them  of  all 
power  to  put  an  end  to  the  mutinous  excesses  of  the  Spanish 
troops,  and  the  latter  carried  their  licentiousness  to  the  utmost 


t  Bentivoglio. 


:A 


132  HISTORY   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  1576. 

bounds.  Zuriczee,  admitted  to  a  surrender,  and  saved  from 
pillage  by  the  payment  of  a  large  sum,  was  lost  to  the  roy^ 
alists  within  three  months,  from  the  want  of  discipline  in  its 
garrison ;  and  the  towns  and  burghs  of  Brabant  suffered  ag 
much  from  the  excesses  of  their  nominal  protectors  as  could 
have  been  inflicted  by  the  enemy.  The  mutineers  at  length, 
to  the  number  of  some  thousands,  attacked  and  carried  bj 
force  the  town  of  Alost,  at  equal  distances  between  Brussels 
Ghent,  and  Antwerp ;  imprisoned  the  chief  citizens;  and  leviec 
contributions  on  all  the  country  round.  It  was  then  that  the 
council  of  state  found  itself  forced  to  proclaim  them  rebels 
traitors,  and  enemies  to  the  king  and  the  country,  and  callec 
on  all  loyal  subjects  to  pursue  and  exterminate  them  wherevei 
they  were  found  in  arms.* 

This  proscription  of  the  Spanisli  mutineers  was  followed 
by  the  convocation  of  the  states-general ;  and  the  g-overnment 
thus  hoped  to  maintain  some  show  of  union,  and  some  chanca 
of  authority.  But  a  new  scene  of  intestine  violence  com- 
pleted the  picture  of  executive  inefficiency.  On  the  4th  ol 
September,  the  grand  bailiff  of  Brabant,  as  lieutenant  of  th^ 
baron  de  Hesse,  governor  of  Brussels,  entered  the  council-i 
chamber  by  force,  and  arrested  all  the  members  present,  oh 
suspicion  of  treacherously  maintaining  intelligence  with  the 
Spaniards.  Counts  Mansfield  and  Berlaimont  were  impris 
oned,  with  some  others.  Viglius  escaped  this  indignity  bj 
being  absent  from  indisposition.  This  bold  measure  wai 
hailed  by  the  people  with  unusual  joy,  as  the  signal  for  tha' 
total  change  in  the  government  which  they  reckoned  on  ai 
the  prelude  to  complete  freedom. 

The  states-general  were  all  at  this  time  assembled,  witi 
the  exception  of  those  of  Flanders,  who  joined  tlie  others  witl 
but  little  delay.  The  general  reprobation  against  the  Span 
iards  procured  a  second  decree  of  proscription ;  and  thei! 
desperate  conduct  justified  the  utmost  violence  with  whici 
they  might  be  pursued.  They  still  held  the  citadels  of  Gheri 
and  Antwerp,  as  well  as  Maestricht,  which  they  had  seizec 
on,  sacked,  and  pillaged  w^ith  all  the  fury  which  a  barbaroui 
enemy  inflicts  on  a  town  carried  by  assault.  On  the  3d  ol 
November,  the  other  body  of  mutineers,  in  possession  oi 
Alost,  marched  to  the  support  of  their  fellow  brigands  in  th< 
citadel  of  Antwerp ;  and  both,  simultaneously  attacking  thii 
magnificent  city,  became  masters  of  it  in  all  points,  in  spit< 
of  a  vigorous  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  citizens.  Thej 
then  began  a  scene  of  rapine  and  destruction  unequalled  it 

*  Bentivoglio. 


1576.  PACIFICATION    OF   GHENT.  133 

the  annals  of  these  desperate  wars.     More  than  500  private 

mansions  and  the  splendid  town-house  were  delivered  to  the 

flames :  7000  citizens  perished  by  the  sword  or  in  the  waters 

,  of  the  Scheldt.     For  three  days  the  carnage  and  the  pillage 

!  went  on  with  unheard-of  fury ;  and  the  most  opulent  town  in 

I  Europe  was  thus  reduced  to  ruin  and  desolation  by  a  few 

I  thousand  frantic   ruffians.     The  loss  was  valued  at  above 

j  2,000,000  golden  crowns.     Vargas   and  Romero  were  the 

!  principal  leaders  of  this  infernal  exploit ;  and  De  Roda  gained 

a  new  title  to  his  immortality  of  shame,  by  standing  forth  as 

its  apologist. 

The  states-general,  assembled  at  Ghent,  were  solemnly 

opened  on  the  14th  of  September.     Being  apprehensive  of  a 

sudden  attack  from  the  Spanish  troops  in  the  citadel,  they 

proposed  a  negotiation,  and  demanded  a  protecting  force  from 

the  prince  of  Orange,  who  immediately  entered  into  a  treaty 

with  their  envoy,  and  sent  to  their  assistance  eight  compa- 

I  nies  of  infantry  and  seventeen  pieces  of  cannon,  under  the 

command  of  the  English  colonel  Temple.*     In  the  midst  of 

this  turmoil  and  apparent  insecurity,  the  states-general  pro- 

I  ceeded  in  their  great  work,  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 

I  ment  in  the  name  of  the  king.     They  allowed  the  council  of 

'  state  still  nominally  to  exist,  but  they  restricted  its  powers 

;  far  within  those  it  had  hitherto  exercised ;  and  the  govern- 

i  ment,  thus  absolutely  assuming  the  form  of  a  republic,  issued 

i  manifestoes  in  justification  of  its  conduct,  and  demanded  suc- 

;  cor  from  all  the  foreign  powers.     To  complete  the  union  be- 

I  tween  the  various  provinces,  it  was  resolved  to  resume  the 

I  negotiations  commenced  the  preceding  year  at  Breda ;  and 

!  the  10th  of  October  was  fixed  for  this  new  congress  to  be 

'  held  in  the  town-house  of  Ghent 

'      On  the  day  appointed,  the  congress  opened  its  sittings ; 
I  and  rapidly  arriving  at  the  termination  of  its  important  object, 
I  the  celebrated  treaty  known  by  the  title  of  The  Pacification 
j  of  Ghent  was  published  on  the  8th  of  November,  to  the 
I  sound  of  bells  and  trumpets ;  while  the  ceremony  was  ren- 
dered still  more  imposing  by  the  thunder  of  the  artillery 
which  battered  the  walls  of  the  besieged  citadel.     It  was 
even  intended  to  have  delivered  a  general  assault  against  the 
place  at  the  moment  of  the  proclamation ;  but  the  mutineers 
demanded  a  capitulation,  and  finally  surrendered  three  days 
afterwards.     It  was  the  wife  of  the  famous  Mondragon  who 
commanded  the  place  in  her  husband's  absence ;  and  by  her 
heroism  gave  a  new  proof  of  the  capability  of  the  sex  to  sur- 

*  Vandervynct. 

M 


134  HISTORY   OF  THE   NETHERLANDS.  1576. 

pass  the  limits  which  nature  seems  to  have  fixed  for  their 
conduct. 

The  Pacification  contained  twenty-five  articles : — amongst 
others,  it  was  agreed, 

That  a  full  amnesty  should  be  passed  for  all  offences  what- 
soever. 

That  the  estates  of  Brabant,  Flanders,  Hainault,  Artois, 
and  others,  on  the  one  part ;  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  the 
states  of  Holland  and  Zealand  and  their  associates,  on  the 
other;  promised  to  maintain  good  faith,  peace,  and  friend- 
ship, firm  and  inviolable ;  to  mutually  assist  each  other,  at 
all  times,  in  council  and  action ;  and  to  employ  life  and  for- 
tune, above  all  things,  to  expel  from  the  country  the  Spanish 
soldiers  and  other  foreigners. 

That  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  injure  or  insult,  by  word 
or  deed,  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion,  on  pain  of  being 
treated  as  a  disturber  of  the  public  peace. 

That  the  edicts  against  heresy  and  the  proclamations  of 
the  duke  of  Alva  should  be  suspended. 

That  all  confiscations,  sentences,  and  judgments  rendered 
since  1566,  should  be  annulled. 

That  the  inscriptions,  monuments,  and  trophies  erected  by 
the  duke  of  Alva  should  be  demolished. 

Such  were  the  general  conditions  of  the  treaty ;  the  re- 
maining articles  chiefly  concerned  individual  interests.  The 
promulgation  of  this  great  charter  of  union,  which  was  con- 
sidered as  the  fundamental  law  of  the  country,  was  hailed  in 
all  parts  of  the  Netherlands  with  extravagant  demonstrations 
of  joy. 


CHAP.  XL 
1576—1580. 

TO     THE     RENUNCIATION     OF  THE   SOVEREIGNTY    OF    SPAIN   AND   THE 
DECLARATION    OF   INDEPENDENCE. 

On  the  very  day  of  the  sack  of  Antwerp,  don  John  of  Aus- 
tria arrived  at  Luxembourg.  This  ominous  commencement 
of  his  vice-regal  reign  was  not  belied  by  the  events  which 
followed ;  and  the  hero  of  Lepanto,  the  victor  of  the  Turks, 
the  idol  of  Christendom,  was  destined  to  have  his  reputation 
and  well-w*on  laurels  tarnished  in  the  service  of  the  insidious 
despotism  to  which  he  now  became  an  instrument.  Don  John 


1576.  DON    JOHN    OF   AUSTRIA.  135 

was  a  natural  son  of  Charles  V.,  and  to  fine  talents  and  a 
good  disposition  united  the  advantages  of  hereditary  courage 
and  a  liberal  education.  He  was  born  at  Ratisbon,  on  the 
24th  of  February,  1548.*  His  reputed  mother  was  a  young 
lady  of  that  place,  named  Barbara  Blomberg  :  but  one  histo- 
rian states,  that  the  real  parent  was  of  a  condition  too  elevated 
to  have  her  rank  betrayed ;  and  that,  to  conceal  the  mystery, 
Barbara  Blomberg  had  voluntarily  assumed  the  distinction,! 
or  the  dishonor,  according  to  the  different  constructions  put 
upon  the  case.  The  prince,  having  passed  through  France, 
disguised,  for  greater  secrecy  or  in  a  youthful  frolic,  as  a 
negro  valet  to  Prince  Octavo  Gonzaga,^  entered  on  the  limits 
of  his  new  government,  and  immediately  wrote  to  the  council 
of  state  in  the  most  condescending  terms  to  announce  his  ar- 
rival. 5 

Nothing  could  present  a  less  promising  aspect  to  the  prince 
than  the  country  at  the  head  of  which  he  was  now  placed. 
He  found  all  its  provinces,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Luxem- 
bourg, in  the  anarchy  attendant  on  a  ten  years'  civil  war, 
and  apparently  resolved  on  a  total  breach  of  their  allegiance 
to  Spain.  He  found  his  best,  indeed  his  only,  course  to  be 
that  of  moderation  and  management ;  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  at  the  outset  his  intentions  were  really  honorable  and 
candid. 

The  states-general  were  not  less  embarrassed  than  the 
prince.  His  sudden  arrival  threw  them  into  great  perplexity, 
which  was  increased  by  the  conciliatory  tone  of  his  letter. 
They  had  now  removed  from  Ghent  to  Brussels ;  and  first 
sending  deputies  to  pay  the  honors  of  a  ceremonious  welcome 
to  don  John,  they  wrote  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  then  in 
Holland,  for  his  advice  in  this  difficult  conjuncture.  The 
prince  replied  by  a  memorial  of  considerable  length,  dated 
Middleburg,  the  30th  of  November,  in  which  he  gave  them 
the  most  wise  and  prudent  advice ;  the  substance  of  which 
was  to  receive  any  propositions  coming  from  the  wily  and 
perfidious  Philip  with  the  utmost  suspicion,  and  to  refuse  all 
negotiation  with  his  deputy,  if  the  immediate  withdrawal  of 
the  foreign  troops  was  not  at  once  conceded,  and  the  accept- 
ance of  the  pacification  guarantied  in  its  most  ample  extent.  || 

This  advice  was  implicitly  followed ;  the  states  in  the  mean 
time  taking  the  precaution  of  assembling  a  large  body  of 
troops  at  Wavre,  between  Brussels  and  Namur,  the  command 
of  which  was  given  to  the  count  of  Lalain.     A  still  more  im- 

*  Strada.  f  Amelot  de  la  Houssaye.  X  Strada. 

§  Bentivoglio.  ||  Meteren,  1. 6. 


136  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1577. 

portant  measure  was  the  dispatch  of  an  envoy  to  England,  to 
implore  the  assistance  of  Elizabeth.  She  acted  on  this  occa- 
sion with  frankness  and  intrepidity;  giving  a  distinguished 
reception  to  the  envoy  De  Sweveghem,  and  advancing  a  loan 
of  100,000/.  sterling,  on  condition  that  the  states  made  no 
treaty  without  her  knowledge  or  participation.* 

To  secure  still  more  closely  the  federal  union  that  now 
bound  the  different  provinces,  a  new  compact  was  concluded 
by  the  deputies  on  the  9th  of  January,  1577,  known  by  the 
title  of  The  Union  of  Brussels,  and  signed  by  the  prelates, 
ecclesiastics,  lords,  gentlemen,  magistrates,  and  others,  re- 
presenting the  estates  of  the  Netherlands.  A  copy  of  this  act 
of  union  was  transmitted  to  don  John,  to  enable  him  thoroughly 
to  understand  the  present  state  of  feeling  among  those  with 
whom  he  was  now  about  to  negotiate.  He  maintained  a 
general  tone  of  great  moderation  throughout  the  conference 
which  immediately  took  place ;  and  after  some  months  of  cau- 
tious parleying,  in  the  latter  part  of  which  the  candor  of  the 
prince  seemed  doubtful,  and  which  the  native  historians  do 
not  hesitate  to  stigmatize  as  merely  assumed,  a  treaty  was 
signed  at  Marche-en-Famenne,  a  place  between  Namur  and 
Luxembourg,  in  which  every  point  msisted  on  by  the  states 
was,  to  the  surprise  and  delight  of  the  nation,  fully  consented 
to  and  guarantied.  This  important  document  is  called  The 
Perpetual  Edict,  bears  date  the  12th  of  February,  1577,  and 
contains  nineteen  articles.  They  were  all  based  on  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Pacification ;  but  one  expressly  stipulated 
that  the  count  of  Beuren  should  be  set  at  liberty,  as  soon  as 
the  prince  of  Orange,  his  father,  had  on  his  part  ratified  the 
treaty,  t 

Don  John  made  his  solemn  entry  into  Brussels  on  the  1st 
of  May,  and  assumed  the  functions  of  his  limited  authority. 
The  conditions  of  the  treaty  were  promptly  and  regularly 
fulfilled.  The  citadels  occupied  by  the  Spanish  soldiers  were 
given  up  to  the  Flemish  and  Walloon  troops ;  and  the  depar- 
ture of  these  ferocious  foreigners  took  place  at  once.  The 
large  sums  required  to  facilitate  this  measure  made  it  neces- 
sary to  submit  for  a  while  to  the  presence  of  the  German 
mercenaries.  But  don  John's  conduct  soon  destroyed  the 
temporary  delusion  which  had  deceived  the  country.  Whether 
his  projects  were  hitherto  only  concealed,  or  that  they  were 
now  for  the  first  time  excited  by  the  disappointment  of  those 
hopes  of  authority  held  out  to  him  by  Philip,  and  which  his 
predecessors  had  shared,  it  is  certain  that  he  very  early  dis- 

*  Meteren,  1.  6.  t  Vandervynct. 


1577.        PRINCE    OF    ORANGE    ENTERS    BRUSSELS.  137 

played  his  ambition,  and  very  imprudently  attempted  to  put 
it  in  force.  He  at  once  demanded  from  the  council  of  state 
the  command  of  the  troops  and  the  disposal  of  the  revenues. 
The  answer  was  a  simple  reference  to  the  Pacification  of 
Ghent ;  and  the  prince's  rejoinder  was  an  apparent  submis- 
sion, and  the  immediate  dispatch  of  letters  in  cipher  to  the 
king,  demanding  a  supply  of  troops  sufficient  to  restore  his 
ruined  authority.  These  letters  were  intercepted  by  the 
king  of  Navarre,  afterwards  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who  im- 
mediately transmitted  them  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  his  old 
friend  and  fellow-soldier. 

Public  opinion,  to  the  suspicions  of  which  don  John  had 
been  from  the  first  obnoxious,  was  now  unanimous  in  attri- 
buting to  design  all  that  was  unconstitutional  and  unfair.  His 
impetuous  character  could  no  longer  submit  to  the  restraint 
of  dissimulation,  and  he  resolved  to  take  some  bold  and  de- 
cided measure.  A  very  favorable  opportunity  was  presented 
in  the  arrival  of  the  queen  of  Navarre,  Marguerite  of  Valois, 
at  Namur,  on  her  way  to  Spa.  The  prince,  numerously  at- 
tended, hastened  to  the  former  town  under  pretence  of  paying 
his  respects  to  the  queen.  As  soon  as  she  lefl  the  place,  he 
repaired  to  the  glacis  of  the  town,  as  if  for  the  mere  enjoy- 
ment of  a  walk,  admired  the  external  appearance  of  the  cita- 
del, and  expressed  a  desire  to  be  admitted  inside.  The  young 
count  of  Berlaimont,  in  the  absence  of  his  father,  the  governor 
of  the  place,  and  an  accomplice  in  the  plot  with  don  John, 
freely  admitted  him.  The  prince  immediately  drew  forth  a 
pistol,  and  exclaimed,  that  "  that  was  the  first  moment  of  his 
government ;"  took  possession  of  the  place  with  his  imme- 
diate guard,  and  instantly  formed  them  into  a  devoted  gar- 
rison. 

The  prince  of  Orange  immediately  made  public  the  inter- 
cepted letters ;  and,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  states-general, 
repaired  to  Brussels ;  into  which  city  he  made  a  truly  tri- 
umphant entry  on  the  23d  of  September,  and  was  immediately 
nominated  governor,  protector  or  ruioard  of  Brabant, — a  dig- 
nity which  had  fallen  into  disuse,  but  was  revived  on  this  oc- 
casion, and  which  was  little  inferior  in  power  to  that  of  the 
dictators  of  Rome.*  His  authority,  now  almost  unlimited, 
extended  over  every  province  of  the  Netherlands,  except 
Namur  and  Luxembourg,  both  of  which  acknowledged  don 
John. 

The  first  care  of  the  liberated  nation  was  to  demolish  the 
various  citadels  rendered  celebrated  and  odious  by  the  ex- 

*  Vandervynct. 

M2 


138  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1577. 

cesses  of  the  Spaniards.  This  was  done  with  an  enthusiastic 
industry  in  which  every  age  and  sex  bore  a  part,  and  which 
promised  well  for  liberty.  Among  the  ruins  of  that  of  Ant- 
werp the  statue  of  the  duke  of  Alva  was  discovered;  dragged 
through  the  filthiest  streets  of  the  town ;  and,  with  all  the 
indignity  so  well  merited  by  the  original,  it  was  finally  broken 
into  a  thousand  pieces. 

The  country,  in  conferring  such  extensive  powers  on  the 
prince  of  Orange,  had  certainly  gone  too  far,  not  for  his  de- 
sert, but  for  its  own  tranquillity.  It  was  impossible  that  such 
an  elevation  should  not  excite  the  discontent  and  awaken  the 
enmity  of  the  haughty  aristocracy  of  Flanders  and  Brabant ; 
and  particularly  of  the  house  of  Croi,  the  ancient  rivals  of 
that  of  Nassau.  The  then  representative  of  that  family 
seemed  the  person  most  suited  to  counterbalance  William's 
excessive  power.  The  duke  of  Arschot  was  therefore  named 
governor  of  Flanders ;  and  he  immediately  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  confederacy  of  the  Catholic  party,  which  quickly 
decided  to  offer  the  chief  government  of  the  country,  still  in 
the  name  of  Philip,  to  the  archduke  Mathias,  brother  of  the 
emperor  Rodolf  IL,  and  cousin-german  to  Philip  of  Spain,  a 
youth  but  nineteen  years  of  age.  A  Flemish  gentleman 
named  Maelsted  was  intrusted  with  the  proposal.  Mathias 
joyously  consented ;  and,  quitting  Vienna  with  the  greatest 
secrecy,  he  arrived  at  Maestricht,  without  any  previous  an- 
nouncement, and  expected  only  by  the  party  that  had  invited 
him,  at  the  end  of  October,  1577. 

The  prince  of  Orange,  instead  of  showing  the  least  symp- 
tom of  dissatisfaction  at  this  underhand  proceeding  aimed  at 
his  personal  authority,  announced  his  perfect  approval  of  the 
nomination,  and  was  the  foremost  in  recommending  measures 
for  the  honor  of  the  archduke  and  the  security  of  the  country. 
He  drew  up  the  basis  of  a  treaty  for  Mathias's  acceptance, 
on  terms  which  guarantied  to  the  council  of  state  and  the 
states-general  the  virtual  sovereignty,  and  lefl  to  the  young 
prince  little  beyond  the  fine  title  which  had  dazzled  his  boy- 
ish vanity.  The  prince  of  Orange  was  appointed  his  lieu- 
tenant, in  all  the  branches  of  the  administration,  civil,  mili- 
tary, or  financial ;  and  the  duke  of  Arschot,  who  had  hoped  to 
obtain  an  entire  domination  over  the  puppet  he  had  brought 
upon  the  stage,  saw  himself  totally  foiled  in  his  project,  and 
left  without  a  chance  or  a  pretext  for  the  least  increase  to  his 
influence. 

But  a  still  greater  disappointment  attended  this  ambitious 
nobleman  in  the  very  strong-hold  of  his  power.  The  Flem- 
ings, driven  by  persecution  to  a  state  of  fury  almost  unnatu- 


1577.  RYHOVE    AND    HEMBYSE.  139 

ral,  had,  in  their  antipathy  to  Spain,  adopted  a  hatred  against 
Catholicism,  which  had  its  source  only  in  political  frenzy, 
while  the  converts  imagined  it  to  arise  from  reason  and  con- 
viction. Two  men  had  taken  advantage  of  this  state  of  the 
public  mind,  and  gained  over  it  an  unbounded  ascendency. 
They  were  Francis  de  Kethulle  lord  of  Ryhove,  and  John 
Hembyse,  who  each  seemed  formed  to  realize  the  beau-ideal 
of  a  factious  demagogue.  They  had  acquired  supreme  power 
over  the  people  of  Ghent,  and  had  at  their  command  a  body 
of  20,000  resolute  and  well-armed  supporters.  The  duke  of 
Arse  hot  vainly  attempted  to  oppose  his  authority  to  that  of 
these  men ;  and  he  on  one  occasion  imprudently  exclaimed, 
that  "  he  would  have  them  hanged,  even  though  they  were 
protected  by  the  prince  of  Orange  himself"  The  same  night 
Ryhove  summoned  the  leaders  of  his  bands ;  and  quickly  as- 
sembling a  considerable  force,  they  repaired  to  the  duke's 
hotel,  made  him  prisoner,  and,  without  allowing  him  time  to 
dress,  carried  him  away  in  triumph.  At  the  same  time  the 
bishops  of  Bruges  and  Ypres,  the  high  bailiffs  of  Ghent  and 
Courtrai,  the  governor  of  Oudenarde,  and  other  important 
magistrates,  were  arrested — accused  of  complicity  with  the 
duke,  but  of  what  particular  offence  the  lawless  demagogues 
did  not  deign  to  specify.  The  two  tribunes  immediately  di- 
vided the  whole  honors  and  authority  of  administration ;  Ry- 
hove as  military,  and  Hembyse  as  civil,  chief 

The  latter  of  these  legislators  completely  changed  the 
forms  of  the  government ;  he  revived  the  ancient  privileges 
destroyed  by  Charles  V.,  and  took  all  preliminary  measures 
for  forcing  the  various  provinces  to  join  with  the  city  of 
Ghent  in  forming  a  federative  republic.  The  states-general 
and  the  prince  of  Orange  were  alarmed,  lest  these  troubles 
might  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  anarchy  from  the  effects  of 
which  the  country  had  but  just  obtained  breathing-time. 
Ryhove  consented,  at  the  remonstrance  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  to  release  the  duke  of  Arschot ;  but  William  was 
obliged  to  repair  to  Ghent  in  person,  in  the  hope  of  establish- 
ing order.  He  arrived  on  the  29th  of  December,  and  entered 
on  a  strict  inquiry  with  his  usual  calmness  and  decision.  He 
could  not  succeed  in  obtaining  the  liberty  of  the  other  prison- 
ers, though  he  pleaded  for  them  strongly.  Having  severely 
reprimanded  the  factious  leaders,  and  pointed  out  the  dangers 
of  their  illegal  course,  he  returned  to  Brussels,  leaving  the 
factious  city  in  a  temporary  tranquillity  which  his.  firmness 
and  discretion  could  alone  have  obtained.* 

♦  Vandervvnct. 


140  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1578. 

The  archduke  Mathias,  having  visited  Antwerp,  and  ac- 
ceded to  all  the  conditions  required  of  him,  made  his  public 
entry  into  Brussels  on  the  18th  of  January,  1578,  and  v^^as: 
installed  in  his  dignity  of  governor-general  amidst  the  usual 
fetes  and  rejoicings.  Don  John  of  Austria  w^as  at  the  same 
time  declared  an  enemy  to  the  country,  with  a  public  order 
to  quit  it  without  delay ;  and  a  prohibition  was  issued  against 
any  inhabitant  acknowledging  his  forfeited  authority. 

vVar  was  now  once  more  openly  declared ;  some  fruitless 
negotiations  having  afforded  a  fair  pretext  for  hostiliti^es. 
The  rapid  appearance  of  a  numerous  army  under  the  orders 
of  don  John  gave  strength  to  the  suspicions  of  his  former 
dissimulation.  It  was  currently  believed  that  large  bodies 
of  the  Spanish  troops  had  remained  concealed  in  the  forests 
of  Luxembourg  and  Lorraine;  while  several  regiments, 
which  had  remained  in  France  in  the  service  of  the  League, 
immediately  re-entered  the  Netherlands.  Alexander  Farnese 
prince  of  Parma,  son  of  the  former  governant,  came  to  the 
aid  of  his  uncle  don  John  at  the  head  of  a  large  force  of 
Italians  ;  and  these  several  reinforcements,  with  the  German 
auxiliaries  still  in  the  country,  composed  an  army  of  20,000 
men.*  The  army  of  the  states-general  was  still  larger ;  but 
far  inferior  in  point  of  discipline.  It  was  commanded  by  An- 
toine  de  Goignies,  a  gentleman  of  Hainault,  and  an  old  soldier 
of  the  school  of  Charles  V. 

After  a  sharp  affair  at  the  village  of  Riminants,  in  which 
the  royalists  had  the  worst,  the  two  armies  met  at  Gemblours, 
on  the  31st  of  January,  1578;  and  the  prince  of  Parma 
gained  a  complete  victory,  almost  with  his  cavalry  only, 
taking  De  Goignies  prisoner,  with  the  whole  of  his  artillery 
and  baggage. t  The  account  of  his  victory  is  almost  miracu- 
lous. The  royalists,  if  we  are  to  credit  their  most  minute 
but  not  impartial  historian,  had  only  1200  men  engaged ;  by 
whom  6000  were  put  to  the  sword,  with  the  loss  of  but 
twelve  men  and  little  more  than  an  hour's  labor.J 

The  news  of  this  battle  threw  the  states  into  the  utmost 
consternation.  Brussels  being  considered  insecure,  the  arch- 
duke Mathias  and  his  council  retired  to  Antwerp ;  but  the 
victors  did  not  feel  their  forces  sufficient  to  justify  an  attack 
upon  the  capital.  They,  however,  took  Louvain,  Tirlemont, 
and  several  other  towns ;  but  these  conquests  were  of  little 
import  in  comparison  with  the  loss  of  Amsterdam,  which  de- 
clared openly  and  unanimously  for  the  patriot  cause.  The 
states-general  recovered  their  courage,  and  prepared  for  a 

*Vandervynct.  *        f  BentivogUo.  X  Strada. 


1578.  DEATH  OF  DON  JOHN.  141 

new  contest.  They  sent  deputies  to  the  diet  of  Worms,  to 
ask  succor  from  the  princes  of  the  empire.  The  count  pala- 
tine John  Casimir  repaired  to  their  assistance  with  a  consid- 
erable force  of  Germans  and  English,  all  equipped  and  paid 
by  queen  Elizabeth.*  The  duke  of  Alen^on,  brother  of 
Henry  III.  of  France,  hovered  on  the  frontiers  of  Hainault 
with  a  respectable  army ;  and  the  cause  of  liberty  seemed 
not  quite  desperate. 

But  all  the  various  chiefs  had  separate  interests  and  oppo- 
site views ;  while  the  fanatic  violence  of  the  people  of  Ghent 
sapped  the  foundations  of  the  pacification  to  which  the  town 
had  given  its  name.  The  Walloon  provinces,  deep-rooted 
in  their  attachment  to  religious  bigotry,  which  they  loved 
still  better  than  political  freedom,  gradually  withdrew  from 
the  common  cause ;  and  without  yet  openly  becoming  recon- 
ciled with  Spain,  they  adopted  a  neutrality  which  was  tanta- 
mount to  it.  Don  John  was,  however,  deprived  of  all  chance 
of  reaping  any  advantage  from  these  unfortunate  dissensions. 
He  was  suddenly  taken  ill  in  his  camp  at  Bougy ;  and  died, 
after  a  fortnight's  suffering,  on  the  1st  of  October,  1578,  in 
the  33d  year  of  his  age.f 

This  unlooked-for  close  to  a  career  which  had  been  so 
brilliant,  and  to  a  life  from  which  so  much  was  yet  to  be  ex- 
pected, makes  us  pause  to  consider  for  a  moment  the  different 
opinions  of  his  times  and  of  history  on  the  fate  of  a  person- 
age so  remarkable.  The  contemporary  Flemish  memoirs 
say  that  he  died  of  the  plague ;  those  of  Spain  call  his  dis- 
order the  purple  fever.  The  examination  of  his  corpse 
caused  an  almost  general  belief  that  he  was  poisoned.  "  He 
lost  his  life,"  says  one  author,  "  with  great  suspicion  of  poi- 
son."! Another  speaks  of  the  suspicious  state  of  his  intes- 
tines, but  without  any  direct  opinion.  J  An  English  historian 
states  the  fact  of  his  being  poisoned,  without  any  reserve.  || 
Flemish  writers  do  not  hesitate  to  attribute  his  murder  to  the 
jealousy  of  Philip  II.,  who,  they  assert,  had  discovered  a 
secret  treaty  of  marriage  about  to  be  concluded  between  don 
John  and  Elizabeth  of  England,  securing  them  the  joint  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Netherlands. IT  An  Italian  historian  of  credit 
asserts  that  this  ambitious  design  was  attributed  to  the  prince; 
and  admits  that  his  death  was  not  considered  as  having 


*  Vandervynct.  t  Idem. 

X  Jlcabo  su  vida^  con  gran  scspecho  de  veneno.—Uerrer&. 
§  Cabrera.  |j  Hume. 

IT  See  Vandervynct. 


142  HISTORY    OF  THE    NETHERLANDS.  1579 

arisen  from  natural  causes.*  It  was  also  believed  that  Esco- 
vedo,  his  confidential  secretary,  being  immediately  called 
back  to  Spain,  was  secretly  assassinated  by  Antonio  Perez, 
Philip's  celebrated  minister,  and  by  the  special  orders  of  the 
king.  Time  has,  however,  covered  the  affair  with  impene- 
trable mystery ;  and  the  death  of  don  John  was  of  little  im- 
portance to  the  affairs  of  the  country  he  governed  so  briefly 
and  so  ingloriously,  if  it  be  not  that  it  added  another  motive 
to  the  natural  hatred  for  his  assumed  murderer. 

The  prince  of  Parma,  who  now  succeeded,  by  virtue  of 
don  John's  testament,  to  the  post  of  governor-general  in  the 
name  of  the  king,  remained  intrenched  in  his  camp.  He  ex- 
pected much  from  the  disunion  of  his  various  opponents ;  and 
what  he  foresaw,  very  quickly  happened.  The  duke  of  Alen- 
<jon  disbanded  his  troops  and  retired  to  France;  and  the 
prince  Palatine,  following  his  example,  withdrew  to  Germany, 
having  first  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  engage  the 
queen  of  England  as  a  principal  in  the  confederacy.  In  this 
perplexity,  the  prince  of  Orange  saw  that  the  real  hope  for 
safety  was  in  uniting  still  more  closely  the  northern  prov- 
inces of  the  union ;  for  he  discovered  the  fallacy  of  reckoning 
on  the  cordial  and  persevering  fidelity  of  the  Walloons.  He 
therefore  convoked  a  new  assembly  at  Utrecht ;  and  the  de- 
puties of  Holland,  Guelders,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen, 
signed,  on  the  29th  of  January,  1579,  the  famous  act  called 
the  Union  of  Utrecht,  the  real  basis  or  fundamental  pact  of 
the  republic  of  the  United  Provinces.  It  makes  no  formal 
renunciation  of  allegiance  to  Spain,  but  this  is  virtually  done 
by  the  omission  of  the  king's  name.  The  twenty-six  articles 
of  this  act  consolidate  the  indissoluble  connexion  of  the 
United  Provinces ;  each  preserving  its  separate  franchises, 
and  following  its  own  good  pleasure  on  the  subject  of  re- 
ligion. The  towns  of  Ghent,  Antwerp,  Bruges,  and  Ypres, 
soon  after  acceded  to  and  joined  the  union. 

The  prince  of  Parma  now  assumed  the  oflTensive,  and 
marched  against  Maestricht  with  his  whole  army.  He  took 
the  place  in  the  month  of  June,  1579,  after  a  gallant  resist- 
ance, and  delivered  it  to  sack  and  massacre  for  three  entire 
days.  About  the  same  time  Mechlin  and  Bois-le-duc  return- 
ed to  their  obedience  to  the  king.  Hembyse  having  renewed 
his  attempts  against  the  public  peace  at  Ghent,  the  prince  of 
Orange  repaired  to  that  place  with  speed;  and  having  re- 
established order,  and  frightened  the  inveterate  demagogue 

*  "  E  quindi  nacque  I'opinione  dispersa  allora,  ch'egli  mancasse  di  morte 
aiutata  piu  tosto  che  nsLimale  "—Bentivofflio, 


1580.         SOVEREIGNTY   OF   SPAIN    RENOUNCED.  143 

into  secret  flight,  Flanders  was  once  more  restored  to  tran- 
quillity. 

An  attempt  was  made  this  year  at  a  reconciliation  between 
the  king  and  the  states.  The  emperor  Rodolf  11.  and  pope 
Gregory  XIII.  offered  their  mediation;  and  on  the  5th  of 
April  a  congress  assembled  at  Cologne,  where  a  number  of 
the  most  celebrated  diplomatists  in  Europe  were  collected.* 
But  it  was  early  seen  that  no  settlement  would  result  from 
the  apparently  reciprocal  wish  for  peace.  One  point, — that 
of  religion,  the  main,  and  indeed  the  only  one  in  debate, — 
was  now  maintained  by  Philip's  ambassador  in  the  same  un- 
christian spirit,  as  if  torrents  of  blood  and  millions  of  treasure 
had  never  been  sacrificed  in  the  cause.  Philip  was  inflexible 
in  his  resolution  never  to  concede  the  exercise  of  the  reform- 
ed worship ;  and  after  nearly  a  year  of  fruitless  consultation, 
and  the  expenditure  of  immense  sums  of  money,  the  congress 
separated  on  the  17th  of  November,  without  having  effect- 
ed any  thmg.  There  were  several  other  articles  intended 
for  discussion,  had  the  main  one  been  adjusted,  on  which 
Philip  was  fully  as  determined  to  make  no  concession ;  but 
his  obstinacy  was  not  put  to  these  new  tests. 

The  time  had  now  arrived  for  the  execution  of  the  great 
and  decisive  step  for  independence,  the  means  of  effecting 
which  had  been  so  long  the  object  of  exertion  and  calculation 
on  the  part  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  now  resolved  to  as- 
semble the  states  of  the  United  Provinces,  solemnly  abjure 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  and  depose  king  Philip  from  the  sov- 
ereignty he  had  so  justly  forfeited.  Much  has  been  written 
both  for  and  against  this  measure,  which  involved  every  ar- 
gument of  natural  rights  and  municipal  privilege.  The  natu- 
ral rights  of  man  may  seem  to  comprise  only  those  which  he 
enjoys  in  a  state  of  nature  :  but  he  carries  several  of  those 
with  him  into  society,  which  is  based  upon  the  very  principle 
of  their  preservation.  The  great  precedent  which  so  many 
subsequent  revolutions  have  acknowledged  and  confirmed,  is 
that  which  we  now  record.  The  states-general  assembled  at 
Antwerp  early  in  the  year  1580 ;  and,  in  spite  of  all  the  op- 
position of  the  Catholic  deputies,  the  authority  of  Spain  was 
revoked  for  ever,  and  the  United  Provinces  declared  a  free 
and  independent  state.  At  the  same  time  was  debated  the 
important  question  as  to  whether  the  protection  of  the  new 
state  should  be  offered  to  England  or  to  France.  Opinions 
were  divided  on  this  point ;  but  that  of  the  prince  of  Orange 
being  in  favor  of  the  latter  country,  from  many  motives  of 

*  Vandervynct. 


144  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1580. 

sound  policy,  it  was  decided  to  offer  the  sovereignty  to  the 
duke  of  Alencon.  The  archduke  Mathias,  who  was  present 
at  the  deliberations,  was  treated  with  little  ceremony ;  but 
he  obtained  the  promise  of  a  pension  when  the  finances  were 
in  a  situation  to  afford  it.  The  definite  proposal  to  be  made 
to  the  duke  of  Alencon  was  not  agreed  upon  for  some  months 
afterwards;  and  it  was  in  the  month  of  August  following 
that  St.  Aldegonde  and  other  deputies  waited  on  the  duke  at 
the  chateau  of  Plessis-le-Tours,  when  he  accepted  the  offered 
sovereignty  on  the  proposed  conditions,  which  set  narrow 
bounds  to  his  authority,  and  gave  ample  security  to  the 
United  Provinces.*  The  articles  were  formally  signed  on 
the  29th  day  of  September ;  and  the  duke  not  only  promised 
quickly  to  lead  a  numerous  army  to  the  Netherlands,  but  he 
obtained  a  letter  from  his  brother  Henry  III.,  dated  Decem- 
ber 26th,  by  which  the  king  pledged  himself  to  give  further 
aid,  as  soon  as  he  might  succeed  in  quieting  his  own  disturb- 
ed and  unfortunate  country.  The  states-general,  assembled 
at  Delft,  ratified  the  treaty  on  the  30th  of  December ;  and 
the  year  which  was  about  to  open  seemed  to  promise  the 
consolidation  of  freedom  and  internal  peace. 


CHAP.  XXL 
1580—1584. 

TO   THE   MURDER  OP   THE   PRINCE   OP    ORANGE. 

Philip  might  be  well  excused  the  utmost  violence  of  re- 
sentment on  this  occasion,  had  it  been  bounded  by  fair  and 
honorable  efforts  for  the  maintenance  of  his  authority.  But 
every  general  principle  seemed  lost  in  the  base  inveteracy 
of  private  hatred.  The  ruin  of  the  prince  of  Orange  was  his 
main  object,  and  his  industry  and  ingenuity  were  taxed  to 
the  utmost  to  procure  his  murder.f  Existing  documents 
prove  that  he  first  wished  to  accomplish  this  in  such  a  way 
as  that  the  responsibility  and  odium  of  the  act  might  rest  on 
the  prince  of  Parma ;  but  the  mind  of  the  prince  was  at  that 
period  too  magnanimous  to  allow  of  a  participation  in  the 
crime.  The  correspondence  on  the  subject  is  preserved  in 
the  archives,  and  the  date  of  Philip's  first  letter  (30th  of  No- 
vember, 1579,)  proves  that  even  before  the  final  disavowal 


*  Vandervynct.  j  D'Ewez,  Hist.  Gen.  des  Pays  Bas,  t.  vi.  p.  128. 


I 


1580.       EDICT  AGAINST  THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGE.  145 

of  his  autliority  by  the  United  Provinces,  he  had  liar  bored 
his  diabolical  design.  The  prince  remonstrated,  but  with  no 
effect.  It  even  appears  that  Philip's  anxiety  would  not  admit 
of  the  delay  necessary  for  the  prince's  reply.  The  infamous 
edict  of  proscription  against  William  bears  date  the  15th  of 
March ;  and  the  most  pressing  letters  commanded  the  prince 
of  Parma  to  make  it  public.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the 
15th  of  June  that  he  sent  forth  the  fatal  ban. 

This  edict,  under  Philip's  own  signature,  is  a  tissue  of  in- 
vective and  virulence.  The  illustrious  object  of  its  abuse  is 
accused  of  having  engaged  the  heretics  to  profane  the  churches 
and  break  the  images;  of  having  persecuted  and  massacred 
the  Catholic  priests;  of  hypocrisy,  tyranny,  and  perjury;  and, 
as  the  height  of  atrocity,  of  having  introduced  liberty  of 
conscience  into  his  country !  For  these  causes,  and  many 
others,  the  king  declares  him  *'  proscribed  and  banished  as  a 
public  pest ;"  and  it  is  permitted  to  all  persons  to  assail  him 
"  in  his  fortune,  person,  and  life,  as  an  enemy  to  human  na- 
ture." Philip  also,  "  for  the  recompense  of  virtue  and  the 
punishment  of  crime,"  promises  to  whoever  will  deliver  up 
William  of  Nassau,  dead  or  alive,  "  in  lands  or  money,  at  his 
choice,  the  sum  of  25,000  golden  crowns ;  to  grant  a  free 
pardon  to  such  person  for  all  former  offences  of  what  kind 
soever,  and  to  invest  him  with  letters  patent  of  nobility." 

In  reply  to  this  brutal  document  of  human  depravity,  Wil- 
liam published  all  over  Europe  his  famous  "  Apology ;"  of 
which  it  is  enough  to  say,  that  language  could  not  produce  a 
more  splendid  refutation  of  every  charge,  or  a  more  terrible 
recrimination  against  the  guilty  tyrant.  It  was  attributed  to 
the  pen  of  Peter  de  Villiers,  a  Protestant  minister.  It  is 
universally  pronounced  one  of  tlie  noblest  monuments  of 
history.*  William,  from  the  hour  of  his  proscription,  became 
at  once  the  equal  in  worldly  station,  as  he  had  ever  been  the 
superior  in  moral  w^orth,  of  his  royal  calumniator.  He  took 
his  place  as  a  prince  of  an  imperial  family,  not  less  ancient 
or  illustrious  than  that  of  the  house  of  Austria ;  and  he  stood 
forward  at  the  supreme  tribunal  of  public  feeling  and  opinion 
as  the  accuser  of  a  king  who  disgraced  his  lineage  and  his 
throne. 

By  a  separate  article  in  the  treaty  with  the  states,  the  duke 
of  Alen^.on  secured  to  William  the  sovereignty  of  Holland 
and  Zealand,  as  well  as  the  lordship  of  Friesland,  with  his 
title  of  stadtholder,  retaining  to  the  duke  his  claim  on  the 
prince's  faith  and  homage.f    The  exact  nature  of  William's 

*  Voltaire.  t  Meteren. 

N 


146  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1581 

authority  was  finally  ratified  on  the  24th  of  July,  1581 ;  on 
which  day  he  took  the  prescribed  oath,  and  entered  on  the 
exercise  of  his  well-earned  rights. 

Philip  now  formed  the  design  of  sending  back  the  duchess 
of  Parma  to  resume  her  former  situation  as  governant,  and 
exercise  the  authority  conjointly  with  her  son.  But  the  latter 
positively  declined  this  proposal  of  divided  power ;  and  he, 
consequently,  was  left  alone  to  its  entire  exercise.  Military 
affairs  made  but  slow  progress  this  year.  The  most  remark- 
able event  was  the  capture  of  La  None,  a  native  of  Bretagne, 
one  of  the  bravest,  and  certainly  the  cleverest,  officers  in  the 
service  of  the  states,  into  which  he  had  passed  after  having 
given  important  aid  to  the  Huguenots  of  France.  He  was 
considered  so  important  a  prize,  that  Philip  refused  all  pro- 
posals for  his  exchange,  and  detained  him  in  the  castle  of 
Limbourg  for  five  years. 

The  siege  of  Cambray  was  now  undertaken  by  the  prince 
of  Parma  in  person ;  while  the  duke  of  Alencon,  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army,  and  the  flower  of  the  French  nobility,  ad- 
vanced to  its  relief,  and  soon  forced  his  rival  to  raise  the 
siege.  The  new  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands  entered  the 
town,  and  was  received  with  tumultuous  joy  by  the  half- 
starved  citizens  and  garrison.  The  prince  of  Parma  sought 
an  equivalent  for  this  check  in  the  attack  of  Tournay,  which 
he  immediately  afterwards  invested.  The  town  was  but  feebly 
garrisoned ;  but  the  Protestant  inhabitants  prepared  for  a  des- 
perate defence,  under  the  exciting  example  of  the  princess 
of  Epinoi,  wife  of  the  governor,  who  was  himself  absent. 
This  remarkable  woman  furnishes  another  proof  of  the  fe- 
male heroism  which  abounded  in  these  wars.  Though 
wounded  in  the  arm,  she  fought  in  the  breach  sword  in  hand, 
braving  peril  and  death.  And  when  at  length  it  was  impos- 
sible to  hold  out  longer,  she  obtained  an  honorable  capitula- 
tion, and  marched  out,  on  the  29th  of  November,  on  horse- 
back, at  the  head  of  the  garrison,  with  an  air  of  triumph 
rather  than  of  defeat. 

The  duke  of  Alencon,  now  created  duke  of  Anjou,  by  which 
title  we  shall  hereafter  distinguish  him,  had  repaired  to  Eng- 
land, in  hopes  of  completing  his  project  of  marriage  with  Eliz- 
abeth. After  three  months  of  almost  confident  expectation, 
the  virgin  queen,  at  this  time  fifty  years  of  age,  Vv^ith  a  ca- 
price not  quite  justifiable,  broke  all  her  former  engagements ; 
and,  happily  for  herself  and  lier  country,  declined  the  mar- 
riage. Anjou  burst  out  into  all  the  violence  of  his  turbulent 
temper,  and  set  sail  for  the  Netherlands.*    Elizabeth  made 

*  Camden,  p.  486. 


1582.  ATTEMPT   TO   MURDER    WILLIAM.  147 

all  the  reparation  in  her  power,  by  the  honors  paid  him  on  his 
dismissal.  She  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Canterbury,  and 
sent  him  away  under  the  convoy  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  her 
chief  favorite ;  and  with  a  brilliant  suite  and  a  fleet  of  fifteen 
sail.  Anjou  was  received  at  Antwerp  with  equal  distinction ; 
and  was  inaugurated  there  on  the  19th  of  February  as  duke 
of  Brabant,  Lothier,  Limbourg",  and  Guelder s,  with  many 
other  titles,  of  which  he  soon  proved  himself  unworthy.  When 
the  prince  of  Orange,  at  the  ceremony,  placed  the  ducal 
mantle  on  his  shoulders,  Anjou  said  to  him,  "  Fasten  it  so 
well,  prince,  that  they  cannot  take  it  off  again !" 

During  the  rejoicings  whicli  followed  this  inauspicious 
ceremony,  Philip's  proscription  against  the  prince  of  Orange 
put  forth  its  first  fruits.  The  latter  gave  a  grand  dinner  in 
the  chateau  of  Antwerp,  which  he  occupied,  on  the  18th  of 
March,  the  birth-day  of  the  duke  of  Anjou ;  and,  as  he  was 
quitting  the  dining-room,  on  his  way  to  his  private  chamber, 
a  young  man  stepped  forward  and  offered  a  pretended  peti- 
tion, William  being  at  all  times  of  easy  access  for  such  an 
object.  While  he  read  the  paper,  the  treacherous  suppliant 
discharged  a  pistol  at  his  head :  the  ball  struck  him  under  the 
left  ear,  and  passed  out  at  the  right  cheek.  As  he  tottered 
and  fell,  the  assassin  drew  a  poniard  to  add  suicide  to  the 
crime,  but  he  was  instantly  put  to  death  by  the  attendant 
guards.  The  young  count  Maurice,  William's  second  son, 
examined  the  murderer's  body ;  and  the  papers  found  on  hhn, 
and  subsequent  inquiries,  told  fully  who  and  what  he  was. 
His  name  was  John  Jaureguay,  his  age  twenty-three  years; 
he  was  a  native  of  Biscay,  and  clerk  to  a  Spanish  merchant 
of  Antwerp,  called  Gaspar  Anastro.  This  man  had  instigated 
him  to  the  crime ;  having  received  a  promise  signed  by  king 
Philip,  engaging  to  give  him  28,000  ducats  and  other  advan- 
tages, if  he  would  undertake  to  assassinate  the  prince  of 
Orange.*  The  inducements  held  out  by  Anastro  to  his  simple 
dupe,  were  backed  strongly  by  the  persuasions  of  Antony 
Timmerman,  a  Dominican  monk ;  and  by  Venero,  Anastro's 
cashier,  who  had  from  fear  declined  becoming  himself  the 
murderer.  Jaureguay  had  duly  heard  mass,  and  received  the 
sacrament,  before  executing  his  attempt;  and  in  his  pockets 
were  found  a  catechism  of  the  Jesuits,  with  tablets  filled  with 
prayers  in  the  Spanish  language ;  one  in  particular  being  ad- 
dressed to  the  angel  Gabriel,  imploring  his  intercession  with 
God  and  the  Virgin,  to  aid  him  in  the  consummation  of  his 
object.     Other  accompanying  absurdities  seem  to  pronounce 

*  Meteren,  De  Thou,  &c. 


148  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1582 

this  miserable  wretch  to  be  as  much  an  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  others  as  the  weapon  of  his  crime  was  in  his  own. 
Timmerman  and  Venero  made  a  full  avowal  of  their  crimi- 
nality, and  suffered  death  in  the  usual  barbarous  manner  of 
the  times.  The  Jesuits,  some  years  afterwards,  solemnly 
gathered  the  remains  of  these  three  pretended  martyrs,  and 
exposed  them  as  holy  relics  for  public  veneration.*  ^  Anastro 
effected  his  escape. 

The  alarm  and  indignation  of  the  people  of  Antwerp  knew 
no  bounds.  Their  suspicions  at  first  fell  on  the  duke  of  An- 
jou  and  the  French  party ;  but  the  truth  was  soon  discovered ; 
and  the  rapid  recovery  of  the  prince  of  Orange  from  his  des- 
perate wound,  set  every  thing  once  more  to  rights.  But  a 
premature  report  of  his  death  flew  rapidly  abroad ;  and  he 
had  anticipated  proofs  of  his  importance  in  the  eyes  of  all 
Europe,  in  the  frantic  delight  of  the  base,  and  the  deep  afflic- 
tion of  the  good.  Within  three  months,  William  was  able  to 
accompany  the  duke  of  Anjou  in  his  visits  to  Ghent,  Bruges, 
and  the  other  chief  towns  of  Flanders ;  in  each  of  which  the 
ceremony  of  inauguration  was  repeated.  Several  military 
exploits  now  took  place,  and  various  towns  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  opposing  parties ;  changing  masters  with  a  rapidity, 
as  well  as  a  previous  endurance  of  suffering,  that  must  have 
carried  confusion  and  change  on  the  contending  principles  of 
allegiance  into  the  hearts  and  heads  of  the  harassed  inhab- 
itants. 

The  duke  of  Anjou,  intemperate,  inconstant,  and  unprin- 
cipled, saw  that  his  authority  was  but  the  shadow  of  power, 
compared  to  the  deep-fixed  practices  of  despotism  which 
governed  the  other  nations  of  Europe.  The  French  officers, 
who  formed  his  suite  and  possessed  all  his  confidence,  had  no 
difficulty  in  raising  his  discontent  into  treason  against  the 
people  with  whom  he  had  made  a  solemn  compact.  The  re- 
sult of  their  councils  was  a  deep-laid  plot  against  Flemish 
liberty ;  and  its  execution  was  ere-long  attempted.  He  sent 
secret  orders  to  the  governors  of  Dunkirk,  Bruges,  Termonde, 
and  other  towns,  to  seize  on  and  hold  them  in  his  name ;  re- 
serving for  himself  the  infamy  of  the  enterprise  against  Ant- 
werp. To  prepare  for  its  execution,  he  caused  his  numerous 
army  of  French  and  Swiss  to  approach  the  city ;  and  they 
were  encamped  in  the  neighborhood,  at  a  place  called  Bor- 
gerhout. 

On  the  17th  of  January,  1583,  the  duke  dined  somewhat 
earlier  than  usual,  under  the  pretext  of  proceeding  afler- 

*  D'Ewez, 


1583.  ATTEMPT   AGAINST   ANTWERP.  149 

wards  to  review  his  army  in  their  camp.  He  set  out  at  noon, 
accompanied  by  his  guard  of  200  horse ;  and  when  he  reached 
the  second  drawbridge,  one  of  his  officers  gave  the  precon- 
certed signal  for  an  attack  on  the  Flemish  guard,  by  pretend- 
ing that  he  had  fallen  and  broken  his  leg.  The  duke  called 
out  to  his  followers,  "  Courage,  courage  !  the  town  is  ours  !" 
The  guard  at  the  gate  was  all  soon  dispatched;  and  the 
French  troops,  which  waited  outside  to  the  number  of  3000, 
rushed  quickly  in,  furiously  shouting  the  war-cry,  "Town 
taken !  town  taken !  kill !  kill !"  The  astonished  but  intrepid 
citizens,  recovering  from  their  confusion,  instantly  flew  to 
arms.  All  diiferences  in  religion  or  politics  were  forgotten 
in  the  common  danger  to  their  freedom.  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants, men  and  women,  rushed  alike  to  the  conflict.  The 
ancient  spirit  of  Flanders  seemed  to  animate  all.  Workmen, 
armed  with  the  instruments  of  their  various  trades,  started 
from  their  shops  and  flung  themselves  upon  the  enemy.  A 
baker  sprang  from  the  celler  where  he  was  kneading  his 
dough,  and  with  his  oven  shovel  struck  a  French  dragoon  to 
the  ground.  Those  who  had  fire-arms,  afl:er  expending  their 
bullets,  took  from  their  pouches  and  pockets  pieces  of  money, 
which  they  bent  between  their  teeth,  and  used  for  charging 
their  arquebusses.  The  French  were  driven  successively 
from  the  streets  and  ramparts,  and  the  cannons  planted  on 
the  latter  were  immediately  turned  against  the  reinforce- 
ments which  attempted  to  enter  the  town.  The  French  were 
everywhere  beaten ;  the  duke  of  Anjou  saved  himself  by 
flight,  and  reached  Termonde,  after  the  perilous  necessity  of 
passing  through  a  large  tract  of  inundated  country.  His  loss 
in  this  base  enterprise  amounded  to  1500 ;  while  that  of  the 
citizens  did  not  exceed  eighty  men.*  The  attempts  simul- 
taneously made  on  the  other  towns  succeeded  at  Dunkirk  and 
Termonde ;  but  all  the  others  failed. 

The  character  of  the  prince  of  Orange  never  appeared  so 
thoroughly  great  as  at  this  crisis.  With  wisdom  and  mag- 
nanimity rarely  equalled  and  never  surpassed,  he  threw  him- 
self and  his  authority  between  the  indignation  of  the  country 
and  the  guilt  of  Anjou ;  saving  the  former  from  excess,  and 
the  latter  from  execration.  The  disgraced  and  discomfited 
duke  proffered  to  the  states  excuses  as  mean  as  they  were 
hypocritical;  and  his  brother,  the  king  of  France,  sent  a 
special  envoy  to  intercede  for  him.  But  it  was  the  influence 
of  William  that  screened  the  culprit  from  public  reprobation 
and  ruin,  and  regained  for  him  the  place  and  power  which  he 

*  Meteren. 

N2 


150  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1584. 

might  easily  have  secured  for  himself,  had  he  not  prized  the 
welfare  of  his  country  far  above  all  objects  of  private  advan- 
tage. A  new  treaty  was  negotiated,  confirming  Anjou  in  his 
former  station,  with  renewed  security  against  any  future 
treachery  on  his  part.  He  in  the  mean  time  retired  to 
France,  to  let  the  public  indignation  subside ;  but  before  he 
could  assume  sufficient  confidence  again  to  face  the  country 
he  had  so  basely  injured,  his  worthless  existence  was  sud- 
denly terminated,  some  thought  by  poison, — the  common  solu- 
tion of  all  such  doubtful  questions  in  those  days, — in  the 
month  of  June  in  the  following  year.  He  expired  in  his 
twenty-ninth  year. 

A  disgusting  proof  of  public  ingratitude  and  want  of  judg- 
ment was  previously  furnished  by  the  conduct  of  the  people 
of  Antwerp  against  him  who  had  been  so  often  their  deliverer 
from  such  various  dangers.  Unable  to  comprehend  the  great- 
ness of  his  mind,  they  openly  accused  the  prince  of  Orange 
of  having  joined  with  the  French  for  their  subjugation,  and 
of  having  concealed  a  body  of  that  detested  nation  in  the 
citadel.  The  populace  rushed  to  the  place,  and  having 
minutely  examined  it,  were  convinced  of  their  own  absurdity 
and  the  prince's  innocence.  He  scorned  to  demand  their 
punishment  for  such  an  outrageous  calumny ;  but  he  was  not 
the  less  afflicted  at  it.*  He  took  the  resolution  of  quitting 
Flanders,  as  it  turned  out,  for  ever ;  and  he  retired  into  Zea- 
land, where  he  was  better  known  and  consequently  better 
trusted. 

In  the  midst  of  the  consequent  confusion  in  the  former  of 
these  provinces,  the  prince  of  Parma,  with  indefatigable 
vigor,  made  himself  master  of  town  after  town;  and  turned 
his  particular  attention  to  the  creation  of  a  naval  force,  which 
was  greatly  favored  by  the  possession  of  Dunkirk,  Nieuport, 
and  Gravelines.  Native  treachery  was  not  idle  in  this  time 
of  tumult  and  confusion.  The  count  of  Renneberg,  governor 
of  Friesland  and  Groningen,  had  set  the  basest  example,  and 
gone  over  to  the  Spaniards.  The  prince  of  Chimay,  son  of 
the  duke  of  Arschot,  and  governor  of  Bruges,  yielded  to  the 
persuasions  of  his  father,  and  gave  up  the  place  to  the  prince 
of  Parma.  Hembyse  also,  amply  confirming  the  bad  opinion 
in  which  the  prince  of  Orange  always  held  him,  returned  to 
Ghent,  where  he  regained  a  great  portion  of  his  former  in- 
fluence, and  immediately  commenced  a  correspondence  with 
the  prince  of  Parma,  offering  to  deliver  up  both  Ghent  and 
Termonde.     An   attempt  was  consequently  made  by  the 

♦  D'Ewez. 


1584.  WILLIAM    OF    NASSAU.  151 

Spaniards  to  surprise  the  former  town  ;  but  the  citizens  were 
prepared  for  this,  having"  intercepted  some  of  the  letters  of 
Hembyse ;  and  the  traitor  was  seized,  tried,  condemned,  and 
executed  on  the  4th  of  August,  1584.  He  was  upwards  of 
seventy  years  of  age.*  Ryhove,  his  celebrated  colleague, 
died  in  Holland  some  years  later. 

But  the  fate  of  so  insignificant  a  person  as  Hembyse  passed 
almost  unnoticed,  in  the  agitation  caused  by  an  event  which 
shortly  preceded  his  death. 

From  the  moment  of  their  abandonment  by  the  duke  of 
Anjou,  the  United  Provinces  considered  themselves  indepen- 
dent; and  although  they  consented  to  renew  his  authority 
over  the  country  at  large,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  prince  of  # 
Orange,  they  were  resolved  to  confirm  the  influence  of  the 
latter  over  their  particular  interests,  which  they  were  now 
sensible  could  acquire  stability  only  by  that  means.f  The 
death  of  Anjou  left  them  without  a  sovereign ;  and  they  did 
not  hesitate  in  the  choice  which  they  were  now  called  upon 
to  make.  On  whom,  indeed,  could  they  fix  but  William  of 
Nassau,  without  the  utmost  injustice  to  him,  and  the  deepest 
injury  to  themselves]  To  whom  could  they  turn,  in  prefer- 
ence to  him  who  had  given  consistency  to  the  early  explosion 
of  their  despair ;  to  him  who  first  gave  the  country  political 
existence,  then  nursed  it  into  freedom,  and  now  beheld  it  in  the 
vigor  and  prime  of  independence  1  He  had  seen  the  necessity, 
but  certainly  over-rated  the  value,  of  foreign  support,  to 
enable  the  new  state  to  cope  with  the  tremendous  tyranny 
from  which  it  had  broken.  He  had  tried  successively  Ger- 
many, England,  and  France.  From  the  first  and  the  last 
of  these  powers  he  had  received  two  governors,  to  whom  he 
cheerfully  resigned  the  title.  The  incapacity  of  both,  and 
the  treachery  of  the  latter,  proved  to  the  states  that  their 
only  chance  for  safety  was  in  the  consolidation  of  William's 
authority ;  and  they  contemplated  the  noblest  reward  which 
a  grateful  nation  could  bestow  on  a  glorious  liberator.  And 
is  it  to  be  believed,  that  he  who  for  twenty  years  had  sacri- 
ficed his  repose,  lavished  his  fortune,  and  risked  his  life,  for 
the  public  cause,  now  aimed  at  absolute  dominion,  or  coveted 
a  despotism  which  all  his  actions  prove  him  to  have  abhorred  1 
Defeated  bigotry  has  put  forward  such  vapid  accusations.  He 
has  been  also  held  responsible  for  the  early  cruelties  which, 
it  is  notorious,  he  used  every  means  to  avert,  and  frequently 
punished.  But  while  these  revolting  acts  can  only  be  viewed 
in  the  light  of  reprisals  against  the  bloodiest  persecution  that 

*  Vandervyiict.  f  Meteren. 


152  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1584. 

ever  existed,  by  exasperated  men  driven  to  vengeance  by  a 
bad  example,  not  one  single  act  of  cruelty  or  bad  faith  has 
ever  been  made  good  against  William,  who  may  be  safely 
pronounced  one  of  tjie  wisest  and  best  men  that  history  has 
held  up  as  examples  to  the  species. 

The  authority  of  one  author  has  been  produced  to  prove 
that,  during  the  lifetime  of  his  brother  Louis,  offers  were 
made  to  him  by  France,  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  northern 
provinces,  on  condition  of  the  southern  being  joined  to  the 
French  crown.*  That  he  ever  accepted  those  oifers  is  without 
proof:  that  he  never  acted  on  them  is  certain.  But  he  might 
have  been  justified  in  purchasing  freedom  for  those  states 
which  had  so  well  earned  it,  at  the  price  even  of  a  qualified 
independence  under  another  power,  to  the  exclusion  of  those 
which  had  never  heartily  struggled  against  Spain.  The  best 
evidence,  however,  of  William's  real  views  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Capitulation,  as  it  is  called ;  that  is  to  say,  the  act  which 
was  on  the  point  of  being  executed  between  him  and  the  states, 
when  a  base  fanatic,  instigated  by  a  bloody  tyrant,  put  a  pe- 
riod to  his  splendid  career.  This  capitulation  exists  at  full 
length,!  but  was  never  formally  executed.  Its  conditions  are 
founded  on  the  same  principles,  and  conceived  in  nearly  the 
same  terms,  as  those  accepted  by  the  duke  of  Anjou ;  and  the 
whole  compact  is  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  liberal  that  his- 
tory has  on  record.  The  prince  repaired  to  Delft  for  the 
ceremony  of  his  inauguration,  the  price  of  his  long  labors;  but 
there,  instead  of  anticipated  dignity,  he  met  the  sudden  stroke 
of  death.  J 

On  the  10th  of  July,  as  he  left  his  dining-room,  and  while 
he  placed  his  foot  on  the  first  step  of  the  great  stair  leading 
to  the  upper  apartments  of  his  house,  a  man  named  Balthazar 
Gerard,  (who,  like  the  former  assassin,  waited  for  him  at  the 
moment  of  convivial  relaxation,)  discharged  a  pistol  at  his 
body :  three  balls  entered  it.  He  fell  into  the  arms  of  an  at- 
tendant, and  cried  out  faintly,  in  the  French  language,  "  God 
pity  me !  I  am  sadly  wounded — God  have  mercy  on  my  soul, 
and  on  this  unfortunate  nation !"  His  sister,  the  countess  of 
Swartzenberg,  who  now  hastened  to  his  side,  asked  him  in 
German,  if  he  did  not  recommend  his  soul  to  God  ]  He  an- 
swered, "  Yes,"  in  the  same  language,  but  with  a  feeble 
voice.  He  was  carried  into  the  dining-room,  where  he  imme- 
diately expired.  His  sister  closed  his  eyes: J  his  wife,  too, 
was  on  the  spot, — Louisa,  daughter  of  the  illustrious  Coligny, 

*  Amelot  de  la  Houssaye.  t  Bor.  liv.  15.  p.  203. 

X  Grotius.  §  La  Pise,  Hist,  des  Princes  d'Orange. 


1584.  CHARACTER    OF    WILLIAM.  153 

and  widow  of  the  gallant  count  of  Teligny,  both  of  whom 
were  also  murdered  almost  in  her  sight,  in  the  frightful  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew.  We  may  not  enter  on  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  afflicting  scene  which  followed :  but  the  mind  is 
pleased  in  picturing  the  bold  solemnity  with  which  prince 
Maurice,  then  eighteen  years  of  age,  swore — not  vengeance 
or  hatred  against  his  father's  murderers — ^but  that  he  would 
faithfully  and  religiously  follow  the  glorious  example  he  had 
given  him.* 

There  is  but  one  important  feature  in  the  character  of  Wil- 
liam which  we  have  hitherto  left  untouched,  but  which  the 
circumstances  of  his  death  seemed  to  sanctify,  and  point  out 
for  record  in  the  same  page  with  it.  We  mean  his  religious  , 
opinions ;  and  we  shall  dispatch  a  subject  which  is,  in  regard 
to  all  men,  so  delicate,  indeed  so  sacred,  in  a  few  words.  He 
was  born  a  Lutheran.  When  he  arrived,  a  boy,  at  the  court 
of  Charles  V.,  he  was  initiated  into  the  Catholic  creed,  in 
which  he  was  thenceforward  brought  up.  Afterwards,  when 
he  could  think  for  himself  and  choose  his  profession  of  faith, 
he  embraced  the  doctrine  of  Calvin.  His  whole  public  con- 
duct seems  to  prove  that  he  viewed  sectarian  principles  chiefly 
in  the  light  of  political  instruments ;  and  that,  himself  a  con- 
scientious Christian,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  term,  he  was 
deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  universal  toleration,  and  con- 
sidered the  various  shades  of  belief  as  subservient  to  the  one 
grand  principle  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  for  which  he  had 
long  devoted  and  at  length  laid  down  his  life.  His  assassin 
was  taken  alive,  and  four  days  afterwards  executed  with  ter- 
rible circumstances  of  cruelty,  which  he  bore  as  a  martyr 
might  have  borne  them.f  He  was  a  native  of  Burgundy,  and 
had  for  some  months  lingered  near  his  victim,  and  insinuated 
himself  into  his  confidence  by  a  feigned  attachment  to  liberty, 
and  an  apparent  zeal  for  the  reformed  faith.  He  was  never- 
theless a  bigoted  Catholic ;  and,  by  his  own  confession,  he  had 
communicated  his  design  to,  and  received  encouragement  to 

*  Whoever  would  really  enjoy  the  spirit  of  historical  details  should  never 
omit  an  opportunity  of  seeing  places  rendered  memorable  by  associations 
connected  with  the  deeds,  and  especially  with  the  death,  of  great  men; 
the  spot,  for  instance,  where  William  was  assassinated  at  Delft;  the  old 
staircase  he  was  just  on  the  point  of  ascending;  the  narrow  pass  between 
that  and  the  dining-hall  whence  he  came  out,  of  scarcely  sufficient  extent 
for  the  murderer  to  hold  forth  his  arm  and  his  pistol,  iij-  feet  long.  This 
weapon,  and  its  fellow,  are  both  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Hague, 
together  with  two  of  the  fatal  bullets,  and  the  very  clothos  which  the  victim 
wore.  The  leathern  doublet,  pierced  by  the  balls  and  burned  by  the  powder, 
lies  beside  the  other  parts  of  the  dress,  tlie  simple  gravity  of  which,  in 
fashion  and  color,  irresistibly  brings  the  wise,  great  man  before  us,  and  adda 
a  hundred-fold  to  the  interest  excited  by  a  recital  of  his  murder. 

t  he  Petit,  Histoire  dea  Pays  Bas. 


154  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1584. 

its  execution  from,  more  than  one  minister  of  the  sect  to 
which  he  belonged.  But  his  avowal  criminated  a  more  im- 
portant accomplice,  and  one  whose  character  stands  so  high 
in  history,  that  it  behoves  us  to  examine  thoroughly  the  truth 
of  the  accusation,  and  the  nature  of  the  collateral  proofs  by 
which  it  is  supported.  Most  writers  on  this  question  have 
leaned  to  the  side  which  all  would  wish  to  adopt,  for  the  honor 
of  human  nature  and  the  integrity  of  a  celebrated  name.  But 
an  original  letter  exists  in  the  archives  of  Brussels,  from  the 
prince  of  Parma  himself  to  Philip  of  Spain,  in  which  he  ad- 
mits that  Balthazar  Gerard  had  communicated  to  him  his  in- 
tention of  murdering  the  prince  of  Orange,  some  months  be- 
fore the  deed  was  done ;  and  he  mixes  phrases  of  compassion 
for  "  the  poor  man"  (the  murderer)  and  of  praise  for  the  act ; 
which,  if  the  document  be  really  authentic,  sinks  Alexander 
of  Parma  as  low  as  the  wretch  with  whom  he  sympathized.* 


CHAP.  XIII. 
1584—1592. 

TO  THE  DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER  PRINCE  OF  PARMA. 

The  death  of  William  of  Nassau  not  only  closes  the  scene 
of  his  individual  career,  but  throws  a  deep  gloom  over  the 
history  of  a  revolution  that  was  sealed  by  so  great  a  sacrifice. 
The  animation  of  the  story  seems  suspended.  Its  events  lose 
for  a  time  their  excitement.  The  last  act  of  the  political 
drama  is  performed.  The  great  hero  of  the  tragedy  is  no 
more.  The  other  most  memorable  actors  have  one  by  one 
passed  away.  A  whole  generation  has  fallen  in  the  contest ; 
and  it  is  with  exhausted  interest,  and  feelings  less  intense, 
that  we  resume  the  details  of  war  and  blood,  which  seem  no 
longer  sanctified  by  the  grander  movements  of  heroism.  The 
stirring  impulse  of  slavery  breaking  its  chains  yields  to  the 
colder  inspiration  of  independence  maintaining  its  rights. 
The  men  we  have  now  to  depict  were  born  free ;  and  the 
deeds  they  did  were  those  of  stern  resolve  rather  than  of 
frantic  despair.  The  present  picture  may  be  as  instructive 
as  the  last,  but  it  is  less  thrilling.  Passion  gives  place  to 
reason ;  and  that  which  wore  the  air  of  fierce  romance  is  su- 
perseded by  what  bears  the  stamp  of  calm  reality. 

*  See  on  this  subject  D'Ewez,  Hist.  Gen.  de  la  Belgique,  t.  vi.  p.  197,  &c. 


1585.  MISERIES    OF   THE    COUNTRY.  155 

The  consternation  caused  by  the  news  of  William's  death 
soon  yielded  to  the  firmness  natural  to  a  people  inured  to 
suffering  and  calamity.  The  United  Provinces  rejected  at 
once  the  overtures  made  by  the  prince  of  Parma  to  induce 
them  to  obedience.  They  seemed  proud  to  show  that  their 
fate  did  not  depend  on  that  of  one  man.  He  therefore  turned 
his  attention  to  the  most  effective  means  of  obtaining  results 
by  force,  which  he  found  it  impossible  to  secure  by  persua- 
sion. He  proceeded  vigorously  to  the  reduction  of  the  chief 
towns  of  Flanders,  the  conquest  of  which  would  give  him 
possession  of  the  entire  province,  no  army  now  remaining  to 
oppose  him  in  the  field.  He  soon  obliged  Ypres  and  Ter- 
monde  to  surrender ;  and  Ghent,  forced  by  famine,  at  length 
yielded  on  reasonable  terms.  The  most  severe  was  the  utter 
abolition  of  the  reformed  religion ;  by  which  a  large  portion 
of  the  population  was  driven  to  the  alternative  of  exile ;  and 
they  passed  over  in  crowds  to  Holland  and  Zealand,  not  half 
of  the  mhabitants  remaining  behind.  Mechlin,  and  finally 
Brussels,  worn  out  by  a  fruitless  resistance,  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  the  rest ;  and  thus,  within  a  year  after  the  death 
of  William  of  Nassau,  the  power  of  Spain  was  again  estab- 
lished in  the  whole  province  of  Flanders,  and  the  others 
which  comprise  what  is  in  modern  days  generally  denomi- 
nated Belgium. 

But  these  domestic  victories  of  the  prince  of  Parma  were 
barren  in  any  of  those  results  which  humanity  would  love  to 
see  in  the  train  of  conquest.  The  reconciled  provinces  pre- 
sented the  most  deplorable  spectacle.  The  chief  towns 
were  almost  depopulated.  The  inhabitants  had  in  a  great 
measure  fallen  victims  to  war,  pestilence,  and  famine.  Little 
inducement  existed  to  replace  by  marriage  the  ravages 
caused  by  death,  for  few  men  wished  to  propagate  a  race 
which  divine  wrath  seemed  to  have  marked  for  persecution. 
The  thousands  of  villages  which  had  covered  the  face  of  the 
country  were  absolutely  abandoned  to  the  wolves,  which  had 
so  rapidly  increased,  that  they  attacked  not  merely  cattle  and 
children,  but  grown-up  persons.  The  dogs,  driven  abroad  by 
hunger,  had  become  as  ferocious  as  other  beasts  of  prey,  and 
joined  in  large  packs  to  hunt  down  brutes  and  men.  Neither 
fields,  nor  woods,  nor  roads,  were  now  to  be  distinguished  by 
any  visible  limits.  All  was  an  entangled  mass  of  trees, 
weeds,  and  grass.  The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  were 
so  high,  that  people  of  rank,  after  selling  every  thing  to  buy 
bread,  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  open  beggary  in  the 
streets  of  the  great  towns. 

From  this  frightful  picture,  and  the  numerous  details  which 


156  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1585. 

imagination  may  readily  supply,  we  gladly  turn  to  the  con- 
trast afforded  by  the  northern  states.  Those  we  have  just 
described  have  a  feeble  hold  upon  our  sympathies ;  we  can- 
not pronounce  their  sufferings  to  be  unmerited.  The  want 
of  firmness  or  enlightment,  which  preferred  such  an  existence 
to  the  risk  of  entire  destruction,  only  heightens  the  glory  of 
the  people  whose  unyielding  energy  and  courage  gained  them 
so  proud  a  place  among  the  independent  nations  of  Europe. 

The  murder  of  William  seemed  to  carry  to  the  United 
Provinces  conviction  of  the  weakness  as  well  as  the  atrocity 
of  Spain ;  and  the  indecent  joy  excited  among  the  royalists 
added  to  their  courage.  An  immediate  council  was  created, 
composed  of  eighteen  members,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
unanimously  placed  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  (who  even 
then  gave  striking  indications  of  talent  and  prudence) ;  his 
elder  brother,  the  count  of  Beuren,  now  prince  of  Orange, 
being  still  kept  captive  in  Spain.  Count  Hohenloe  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general ;  and  several  other  measures  were 
promptly  adopted  to  consolidate  the  power  of  the  infant  re- 
public. The  whole  of  its  forces  amounted  but  to  5500  men. 
The  prince  of  Parma  had  80,000  at  his  command.*  With 
such  means  of  carrying  on  his  conquests,  he  sat  down  regu- 
larly before  Antwerp,  and  commenced  the  operations  of  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  among  the  many  memorable  sieges 
of  those  times.  He  completely  surrounded  the  city  with 
troops ;  placing  a  large  portion  of  his  army  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Scheldt,  the  other  on  the  right ;  and  causing  to  be  at- 
tacked at  the  same  time  the  two  strong  forts  of  Liefkinshoek 
and  Lillo.  Repulsed  on  the  latter  important  point,  his  only 
hope  of  gaining  the  command  of  the  navigation  of  the  river, 
on  which  the  success  of  the  siege  depended,  was  by  throwing 
a  bridge  across  the  stream.  Neither  its  great  rapidity,  nor 
its  immense  width,  nor  the  want  of  wood  and  workmen, 
could  deter  him  from  this  vast  undertaking.  He  was  assist- 
ed, if  not  guided,  in  all  his  projects  on  the  occasion,  by  Bar- 
roccio,  a  celebrated  Italian  engineer  sent  to  him  by  Philip ; 
and  the  merit  of  all  that  was  done  ought  fairly  to  be,  at  least, 
divided  between  the  general  and  the  engineer.  If  enterprise 
and  perseverance  belonged  to  the  first,  science  and  skill  were 
the  portion  of  the  latter.  They  first  caused  two  strong  forts 
to  be  erected  at  opposite  sides  of  the  river ;  and  adding  to 
their  resources  by  every  possible  means,  they  threw  forward 
a  pier  on  each  side  of,  and  far  into,  the  stream.  The  stakes, 
driven  firmly  into  the  bed  of  the  river  and  cemented  with 

*  Hooft. 


1585.  SIEGE    OF   ANTWERP.  157 

masses  of  earth  and  stones,  were  at  a  proper  height  covered 
with  planks  and  defended  by  parapets.  These  estoccades,  as 
they  were  called,  reduced  the  river  to  half  its  original  breadth ; 
and  the  cannon  with  which  they  were  mounted  rendered  the 
passage  extremely  dangerous  to  hostile  vessels.  But,  to  fill 
up  this  strait,  a  considerable  number  of  boats  were  fastened 
together  by  chain-hooks  and  anchors ;  and  being  manned  and 
armed  with  cannon,  they  were  moored  in  the  interval  be- 
tween the  estoccades.  During  these  operations,  a  canal  was 
cut  between  the  Moer  and  Calloo ;  by  which  means  a  com- 
munication was  formed  with  Ghent,  which  insured  a  supply 
of  ammunition  and  provisions.  The  works  of  the  bridge, 
which  was  2400  feet  in  length,  were  constructed  with  such 
strength  and  solidity,  that  they  braved  the  winds,  the  floods, 
and  the  ice  of  the  whole  winter.         -  ^' 

The  people  of  Antwerp  at  first  laughed  to  scorn  the  w^hole 
of  these  stupendous  preparations :  but  when  they  found  that 
the  bridge  resisted  the  natural  elements,  by  which  they 
doubted  not  it  would  have  been  destroyed,  they  began  to 
tremble  in  the  anticipation  of  famine ;  yet  they  vigorously 
prepared  for  their  defence,  and  rejected  the  overtures  made 
by  the  prince  of  Parma  even  at  this  advanced  stage  of  his 
proceedings.  Ninety-seven  pieces  of  cannon  now  defended 
the  bridge ;  besides  which,  thirty  large  barges  at  each  side 
of  the  river  guarded  its  extremities ;  and  forty  ships  of  war 
formed  a  fleet  of  protection,  constantly  ready  to  meet  any 
attack  from  the  besieged.  They,  seeing  the  Scheldt  thus 
really  closed  up,  and  all  communication  with  Zealand  impos- 
sible, felt  their  whole  safety  to  depend  on  the  destruction  of 
the  bridge.  The  states  of  Zealand  now  sent  forward  an  ex- 
pedition, which,  joined  with  some  ships  from  Lillo,  gave  new 
courage  to  the  besieged ;  and  every  thing  was  prepared  for 
their  great  attempt.  An  Italian  engineer  named  Giambelli 
was  at  this  time  in  Antwerp,  and  by  his  talents  had  long  pro- 
tracted the  defence.  He  has  the  chief  merit  of  being  the 
inventor  of  those  terrible  fire-ships  which  gained  the  title  of 
"  infernal  machines ;"  and  with  some  of  these  formidable  in- 
struments and  the  Zealand  fleet,  the  long-projected  attack 
was  at  length  made. 

Early  on  the  night  of  the  4th  of  April,  the  prince  of  Parma 
and  his  army  were  amazed  by  the  spectacle  of  three  huge 
masses  of  flame  floating  down  the  river,  accompanied  by 
numerous  lesser  appearances  of  a  similar  kind,  and  bearing 
directly  against  the  prodigious  barrier,  which  had  cost  months 
of  labor  to  him  and  his  troops,  and  immense  sums  of  money 
to  the  state.  The  whole  surface  of  the  Scheldt  presented 
O 


158  HISTORY    OF   TIIE    NETHERLANDS.  1585. 

one  sheet  of  fire ;  the  country  all  round  was  as  visible  as  at  .^ 
noon ;  the  flags,  the  arms  of  the  soldiers,  and  every  object  on  t 
the  bridge,  in  the  fleet,  or  the  forts,  stood  out  clearly  to  view ;  f 
and  the  pitchy  darkness  of  the  sky  gave  increased  effect  to  t 
the  marked  distinctness  of  all.     Astonishment  was  soon  sue-  ^ 
ceeded  by  consternation,  when  one  of  the  three  machines 
burst  with  a  terrific  noise  before  they  reached  their  intended 
mark,  but  time  enough  to  offer  a  sample  of  their  nature.  The 
prince  of  Parma,  with  numerous  officers  and  soldiers  rushed 
to  the  bridge,  to  witness  the  eflTects  of  this  explosion ;  and 
just  then  a  second  and  still  larger  fire-ship,  having  burst 
through  the  flying  bridge  of  boats,  struck  against  one  of  the 
estoccades.     Alexander,  unmindful  of  danger,  used  every  ex- 
ertion of  his  authority  to  stimulate  the  sailors  in  their  at- 
tempts to  clear  away  the  monstrous  machine  which  threaten- 
ed destruction  to  all  within  its  reach.     Happily  for  him,  an 
ensign  who  was  near,  forgetting  in  his  general's  peril  all 
rules  of  discipline  and  forms  of  ceremony,  actually  forced  hira 
from  the  estoccade.     He  had  not  put  his  foot  on  the  river 
bank  when  the  machine  blew  up.     The  effects  were  such  as 
really  baffle  description.     The  bridge  was  burst  through ;  the 
estoccade  was  shattered  almost  to  atoms,  and,  with  all  that 
it  supported, — men,  cannon,  and  the  huge  machinery  em- 
ployed in  the  various  works, — dispersed  in  the  air.     The 
cruel  marquis  of  Roubais,  many  other  officers,  and  800  sol- 
diers, perished,  in  all  varieties  of  death — by  flood,  or  flame, 
or  the  horrid  wounds  from  the  missiles  with  which  the  terri- 
ble machine  was  overcharged.     Fragments  of  bodies   and 
limbs  were  flung  far  and  wide ;  and  many  gallant  soldiers 
were  destroyed^  without  a  vestige  of  the  human  form  being 
left  to  prove  that  they  had  ever  existed.     The  river,  forced 
from  its  bed  at  either  side,  rushed  into  the  forts  and  drowned 
numbers  of  their  garrisons;  while  the  ground  far  beyond 
shook  as  in  an  earthquake.*   The  prince  was  struck  down  by 
by  a  beam,  and  lay  for  some  time  senseless,  together  with 
two  generals,  Delvasto  and  Gajitani,  both  more   seriously 
wounded  than  he ;  and  many  of  the  soldiers  were  burned  and 
mutilated  in  the  most  frightful  manner.     Alexander  soon  re- 
covered ;  and  by  his  presence  of  mind,  humanity,  and  resolu- 
tion, he  endeavored  with  incredible  quickness  to  repair  the 
mischief,  and  raised  the  confidence  of  his  army  as  high  as 
ever.     Had  the  Zealand  fleet  come  in  time  to  the  spot,  the 
whole  plan  might  have  been  crowned  with  success ;  but  by 

*  Bentivoglio,  Schiller,  Vandervynct,  and  Strada. 


1585.       THE  STATES  OBTAIN  AID  FROM  ENGLAND.  159 

some  want  of  concert,  or  accidental  delay,  it  did  not  appear; 
and  consequently  the  beleaguered  town  received  no  relief. 

One  last  resource  was  left  to  the  besieged ;  that  which  had 
formerly  been  resorted  to  at  Leyden,  and  by  which  the  place 
was  saved.  To  enable  them  to  inundate  the  immense  plain 
which  stretched  between  Lillo  and  Strabrock  up  to  the  walls 
of  Antwerp,  it  was  necessary  to  cut  through  the  dike  which 
defended  it  against  the  irruptions  of  the  eastern  Scheldt. 
This  plain  was  traversed  by  a  high  and  wide  counter-dike, 
called  the  dike  of  Couvestien ;  and  Alexander,  knowing  its 
importance,  had  early  taken  possession  of  and  strongly  de- 
fended it  by  several  forts.  Two  attacks  were  made  by  the 
garrison  of  Antwerp  on  this  important  construction ;  the  lat- 
ter of  which  led  to  one  of  the  most  desperate  encounters  of 
the  war.  The  prince,  seeing  that  on  the  results  of  this  day 
depended  the  whole  consequences  of  his  labors,  fought  with 
a  valor  that  even  he  had  never  before  displayed,  and  he  was 
finally  victorious.  The  confederates  were  forced  to  abandon 
the  attack,  leaving  3000  dead  u|X)n  the  dike  or  at  its  base ; 
and  the  Spaniards  lost  full  800  men. 

One  more  fruitless  attempt  was  made  to  destroy  the  bridge 
and  raise  the  siege,  by  means  of  an  enormous  vessel  bearing 
the  presumptuous  title  of  The  End  of  the  War.  But  this 
floating  citadel  ran  aground,  without  producing  any  effect ; 
and  the  gallant  governor  of  Antwerp,  the  celebrated  Philip 
de  Saint  Aldegonde,  was  forced  to  capitulate  on  the  16th  of 
August,  after  a  siege  of  fourteen  months.  The  reduction  of 
Antwerp  was  considered  a  miracle  of  perseverance  and  cour- 
age. The  prince  of  Parma  was  elevated  by  his  success  to 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  renown;  and  Philip,  on  receiving  the 
news,  displayed  a  burst  of  joy  such  as  rarely  varied  his  cold 
and  gloomy  reserve. 

Even  while  the  fate  of  Antwerp  was  undecided,  the  United 
Provinces,  seeing  that  they  were  still  too  weak  to  resist  alone 
the  undivided  force  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  had  opened  ne- 
gotiations with  France  and  England  at  once,  in  the  hope  of 
gaining  one  or  the  other  for  an  ally  and  protector.  Henry 
III.  gave  a  most  honorable  reception  to  the  ambassadors  sent 
to  his  court,  and  was  evidently  disposed  to  accept  their  offers, 
had  not  the  distracted  state  of  his  own  country,  still  torn  by 
civil  war,  quite  disabled  him  from  any  effective  co-operation. 
The  deputies  sent  to  England  were  also  well  received.  Eliza- 
beth listened  to  the  proposals  of  the  states,  sent  them  an  am- 
bassador in  return,  and  held  out  tlie  most  flattering  hopes  of 
succor.  But  her  cautious  policy  would  not  suffer  her  to  ac- 
cept the  sovereignty ;  and  she  declared  that  she  would  in  no 


160  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1586. 

ways  interfere  with  the  negotiations,  which  might  end  in  its 
being  accepted  by  the  king  of  France.*  She  gave  prompt 
evidence  of  her  sincerity  by  an  advance  of  considerable  sums 
of  money,  and  by  sending  to  Holland  a  body  of  6000  troops, 
under  the  command  of  her  favorite,  Robert  Dudley  earl  of 
Leicester ;  and  as  security  for  the  repayment  of  her  loan,  the 
towns  of  Flushing  and  Brille,  and  the  castle  of  Rammekins, 
were  given  up  to  her.f 

The  earl  of  Leicester  was  accompanied  by  a  splendid  reti- 
nue of  noblemen,  and  a  select  troop  of  500  followers.  He  was 
received  at  Flushing  by  the  governor.  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  his 
nephew,  the  model  of  manners  and  conduct  for  the  young 
men  of  his  day.  But  Leicester  possessed  neither  courage  nor 
capacity  equal  to  the  trust  reposed  in  him ;  and  his  arbitrary 
and  indolent  conduct  soon  disgusted  the  people  whom  he  was 
sent  to  assist!  They  had,  in  the  first  impulse  of  their  grati- 
tude, given  him  the  title  of  governor  and  captain-general  of 
the  provinces,  in  the  hope  of  flattering  Elizabeth.  But  this 
had  a  far  contrary  effect :  she  was  equally  displeased  with 
the  states  and  with  Leicester;  and  it  was  with  difficulty 
that,  after  many  humble  submissions,  they  were  able  to  ap- 
pease her.  5 

To  form  a  counterpoise  to  the  power  so  lavishly  conferred 
on  Leicester,  prince  Maurice  was,  according  to  the  wise  ad- 
vice of  Olden  Barnevelt,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  stadtholder, 
captain-general,  and  admiral  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  This 
is  the  first  instance  of  these  states  taking  on  themselves  the 
nomination  to  the  dignity  of  stadtholder,  for  even  William 
had  held  his  commission  from  Philip,  or  in  his  name ;  but 
Friesland,  Groningen,  and  Guelders  had  already  appointed 
their  local  governors,  under  the  same  title,  by  the  authority 
of  the  states-general,  the  archduke  Mathias,  or  even  of  the 
provincial  states.  ||  Holland  had  now  also  at  the  head  of  its 
civil  government  a  citizen  full  of  talent  and  probity,  who  was 
thus  able  to  contend  with  the  insidious  designs  of  Leicester 
against  the  liberty  he  nominally  came  to  protect.  This  was 
Barnevelt,  who  was  promoted  from  his  office  of  pensionary  of 
Rotterdam  to  that  of  Holland,  and  who  accepted  the  dignity 
only  on  condition  of  being  free  to  resign  it  if  any  accommo- 
dation of  differences  should  take  place  with  Spain.lT 

Alexander  of  Parma  had,  by  the  death  of  his  mother,  in 
February,  1586,  exchanged  his  title  of  Prince  for  the  supe- 


*  Meteren.  f  Hume,  vol.  v.  p.  272.  t  Vandervynct,  1.  vi.  c.  2. 

§  Hume.  }|  Cerisier,  Hist.  Gen.  des  Provinces  Unies,  t.  iv.  p.  66. 

ir  Cerisier. 


1586.  DEATH    OF   SIR   PHILir  SIDNEY.  161 

rior  one  of  duke  of  Parma,  and  soon  resumed  his  enterprises 
with  his  usual  energy  and  success :  various  operations  took 
place,  in  which  the  English  on  every  opportunity  distinguish- 
ed themselves ;  particularly  in  an  action  near  the  town  of 
Grave,  in  Brabant ;  and  in  the  taking  of  Axel  by  escalade, 
under  the  orders  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  A  more  importjint 
affair  occurred  near  Zutphen,  at  a  place  called  Warnsfeld, 
both  which  towns  have  given  names  to  the  action.  On  this 
occasion  the  veteran  Spaniards,  under  the  marquis  of  Guasto, 
were  warmly  attacked  and  completely  defeated  by  the  Eng- 
lish ;  but  the  victory  was  dearly  purchased  by  the  death  of 
Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  thigh, 
and  expired  a  few  days  afterwards,  at  the  early  age  of  32 
years.  In  addition  to  the  valor,  talent,  and  conduct,  which 
had  united  to  establish  his  fame,  he  displayed,  on  this  last 
opportunity  of  his  short  career,  an  instance  of  Immanity  tliat 
sheds  a  new  lustre  on  even  a  character  like  his.  Stretched 
on  the  battle-field,  in  all  the  agony  of  his  wound,  and  parched 
with  thirst,  his  afflicted  followers  brought  liim  some  water, 
procured,  with  difficulty,  at  a  distance,  and  during  the  heat 
of  the  fight.  But  Sidney,  seeing  a  soldier  lying  near,  man- 
gled like  himself,  and  apparently  expiring,  refused  the  water, 
saying,  ♦*  Give  it  to  that  poor  man ;  his  sufferings  arc  greater 
than  mine."* 

Leicester's  conduct  was  now  become  quite  intolerable  to 
the  states.  His  incapacity  and  presumption  were  every  day 
more  evident  and  more  revolting.  He  seemed  to  consider 
himself  in  a  province  wholly  reduced  to  English  authority, 
and  paid  no  sort  of  attention  to  the  very  opposite  character 
of  the  people.  An  eminent  Dutch  author  accounts  for  this, 
in  terms  which  may  make  an  Englishman  of  this  age  not  a 
little  proud  of  the  contrast  which  his  character  presents  to 
what  it  was  then  considered.  "  The  Englishman,"  says  Gro- 
tius,  "  obeys  like  a  slave,  and  governs  like  a  tyrant ;  while 
the  Belgian  knows  how  to  serve  and  to  command  with  equal 
moderation."!  The  dislike  between  Leicester  and  those  he 
insulted  and  misgoverned,  soon  became  mutual.  He  retired 
to  the  town  of  Utrecht ;  and  pushed  his  injurious  conduct  to 
such  an  extent,  that  he  became  an  object  of  utter  hatred  to 
the  provinces.  All  the  friendly  feelings  towards  England 
were  gradually  changed  into  suspicion  and  dislike.  Confer- 
ences took  place  at  the  Hague  between  Leicester  and  the 
states,  in  which  Barnevelt  overwhelmed  his  contemptible 
shuffling  by  the  force  of  irresistible  eloquence  and  well-de- 

*  Bor.  xxi.  43.  t  Grot.  Ann. 

02 


162  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1587. 

served  reproaches ;  and  after  new  acts  of  treachery,  still 
more  odious  than  his  former,  this  unworthy  favorite  at  last  set 
out  for  England,  to  lay  an  account  of  his  government  at  the 
feet  of  the  queen.* 

The  growing  hatred  against  England  was  fomented  by  the 
true  patriots,  who  aimed  at  the  liberty  of  their  country ;  and 
may  be  excused,  from  the  various  instances  of  treachery  dis- 
played, not  only  by  the  commander-in-chief,  but  by  several 
of  his  inferiors  in  command.  A  strong  fort,  near  Zutphen, 
under  the  government  of  Roland  York,  the  town  of  Deven- 
ter,  under  that  of  William  Stanly,  and  subsequently  Guel- 
ders  under  a  Scotchman  named  Fallot,  were  delivered  up  to 
the  Spaniards  by  these  men ;  and  about  the  same  time  the 
English  cavalry  committed  some  excesses  in  <juelders  and 
Holland,  which  added  to  the  prevalent  prejudice  against  the 
nation  in  general. f  This  enmity  was  no  longer  to  be  con- 
cealed. The  partisans  of  Leicester,  were  one  by  one,  under 
plausible  pretexts,  removed  from  the  council  of  state ;  and 
Elizabeth  having  required  from  Holland  the  exportation  into 
England  of  a  large  quantity  of  rye,  it  was  firmly  but  respect- 
fully refused,  as  inconsistent  with  the  wants  of  the  provinces. 

Prince  Maurice,  from  the  caprice  and  jealousy  of  Leices- 
ter, now  united  in  himself  the  whole  power  of  command,  and 
commenced  that  brilliant  course  of  conduct,  which  consoli- 
dated the  independence  of  liis  country,  and  elevated  him  to 
the  first  rank  of  military  glory.  His  early  eflJbrts  were  turned 
to  the  suppression  of  the  partiality  which  in  some  places  ex- 
isted for  English  domination ;  and  he  never  allowed  himself 
to  be  deceived  by  the  hopes  of  peace  held  out  by  the  empe- 
ror and  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Poland.  Without  refusing 
their  mediation,  he  labored  incessantly  to  organize  every  pos- 
sible means  for  maintaining  the  war.  His  efforts  were  con- 
siderably favored  by  the  measures  of  Philip  for  the  support 
of  the  league  formed  by  the  house  of  Guise  against  Henry 
III.  and  Henry  IV.  of  France ;  but  still  more  by  the  formi- 
dable enterprise  which  the  Spanish  monarch  was  now  pre- 
paring against  England. 

Irritated  and  mortified  by  tlie  assistance  whidh  Elizabeth 
had  given  to  the  revolted  provinces,  Philip  resotved  to  em- 
ploy his  whole  power  in  attempting  the  conquest  of  England 
itself;  hoping  afterwards  to  effect  with  ease  the  subjugation 
of  the  Netherlands.  He  caused  to  be  built,  in  almost  every 
port  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  galleons,  carricks,  and  other  ships 
of  war  of  the  largest  dimensions;  and  at  the  same  time  gave 

*  Cerisicr.  f  Bor.  xx.  22.  2G.  28. 


1587.  THE   SPANISH    AR3IADA.  163 

orders  to  the  duke  of  Parma  to  assemble  in  the  harbors  of 
Flanders  as  many  vessels  as  he  could  collect  together.  The 
Spanish  fleet,  consisting  of  more  than  140  ships  of  the  line, 
and  manned  by  20,000  sailors,  assembled  at  Lisbon  under  the 
orders  of  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia ;  while  the  duke  of 
Parma,  uniting  his  forces,  held  himself  ready  on  the  coast  of 
Flanders,  with  an  army  of  30,000  men,  and  400  transports. 
This  prodigious  force  obtained,  in  Spain,  the  ostentatious  title 
of  the  Invincible  Armada.  Its  destination  was  for  a  while 
attempted  to  be  concealed,  under  pretext  that  it  was  meant 
for  India,  or  for  the  annihilation  of  the  United  Provinces ; 
but  the  mystery  was  soon  discovered.  At  the  end  of  May, 
the  principal  fleet  sailed  from  the  port  of  Lisbon ;  and  being 
reinforced  off'Corunna  by  a  considerable  squadron,  the  whole 
armament  steered  its  course  for  the  shores  of  England. 

The  details  of  the  progress  and  the  failure  of  this  cele- 
brated attempt,  are  so  tlioroughly  the  province  of  English 
history,  that  they  would  be  in  this  place  superfluous.  But  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  glory  of  the  proud  result  was 
amply  shared  by  the  new  republic,  whose  existence  depended 
on  it.  While  Howard  and  Drake  held  the  British  fleet  in 
readiness  to  oppose  the  Spanish  armada,  that  of  Holland,  con- 
sisting of  but  twenty-five  ships,  under  the  command  of  Justin 
of  Nassau,  prepared  to  take  a  part  in  the  conflict.  This  gal- 
lant though  illegitimate  scion  of  the  illustrious  house  whose 
name  he  upheld  on  many  occasions,  proved  himself  on  the 
present  worthy  of  such  a  father  as  William,  and  such  a  brother 
as  Maurice.  While  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  ascending 
the  channel  as  far  as  Dunkirk,  there  expected  the  junction 
of  the  duke  of  Parma  with  his  important  reinforcement,  Jus- 
tin of  Nassau,  by  a  constant  activity,  and  a  display  of  intre- 
pid talent,  contrived  to  block  up  the  whole  expected  force  in 
the  ports  of  Flanders  from  Lillo  to  Dunkirk.  The  duke  of 
Parma  found  it  impossible  to  force  a  passage  on  any  one 
point ;  and  was  doomed  to  the  mortification  of  knowing  that 
the  attempt  was  frustrated,  and  the  whole  force  of  Spain 
frittered  away,  discomfited,  and  disgraced,  from  the  want  of 
a  co-operation,  which  he  could  not,  however,  reproach  him- 
self for  having  withheld.  The  issue  of  the  memorable  ex- 
pedition which  cost  Spain  years  of  preparation,  thousands  of 
men,  and  millions  of  treasure,  was  received  in  the  country 
which  sent  it  forth  with  consternation  and  rage.  Philip  alone 
possessed  or  affected  an  apathy,  which  he  covered  with  a 
veil  of  mock  devotion  that  few  were  deceived  by.  At  the 
news  of  the  disaster,  he  fell  on  his  knees,  and  rendering 


164  HISTORY    OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  1590. 

thanks  for  that  gracious  dispensation  of  Providence,  expressed 
his  joy  that  the  calamity  was  not  greater.* 

The  people,  the  priests,  and  the  commanders  of  the  expe- 
dition were  not  so  easily  appeased,  or  so  clever  as  their  hypo- 
critical master  in  concealing  their  mortification.  The  priests 
accounted  for  this  triumph  of  heresy  as  a  punishment  on 
Spain  for  suffering  the  existence  of  the  infidel  Moors  in  some 
parts  of  the  country.f  The  defeated  admirals  threw  the 
whole  blame  on  the  duke  of  Parma.  He,  on  his  part,  sent  an 
ample  remonstrance  to  the  king ;  and  Philip  declared  that 
he  was  satisfied  with  the  conduct  of  his  nephew.  Leicester 
died  four  days  afler  the  final  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  ar- 
mada.l 

The  war  in  the  Netherlands  had  been  necessarily  suffered 
to  languish,  while  every  eye  was  fixed  on  the  progress  of 
the  armada,  from  formation  to  defeat.  But  new  efforts  were 
soon  made  by  the  duke  of  Parma  to  repair  the  time  he  had 
lost,  and  soothe,  by  his  successes,  the  disappointed  pride  of 
Spain.  Several  officers  now  came  into  notice,  remarkable 
for  deeds  of  great  gallantry  and  skill.  None  among  those 
were  so  distinguished  as  Martin  Schenck,  a  soldier  of  fortune, 
a  man  of  ferocious  activity,  who  began  his  career  in  the  ser- 
vice of  tyranny,  and  ended  it  by  chance  in  that  of  indepen- 
dence. He  changed  sides  several  times ;  but,  no  matter  who 
he  fought  for,  he  did  his  duty  well,  from  that  unconquerable 
principle  of  pugnacity  which  seemed  to  make  his  sword  a 
part  of  himself. 

Schenck  had  lately,  for  the  last  time,  gone  over  to  the  side 
of  the  states,  and  had  caused  a  fort  to  be  built  in  the  isle  of 
Betewe, — that  possessed  of  old  by  the  Batavians, — which  was 
called  by  his  name,  and  was  considered  the  key  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Rhine.  From  this  strong-hold  he  constantly  har- 
assed the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  had  as  his  latest  ex- 
ploit surprised  and  taken  the  strong  town  of  Bonn.  While 
the  duke  of  Parma  took  prompt  measures  for  the  relief  of  the 
prelate,  making  himself  master  in  the  mean  time  of  some 
places  of  strength,  the  indefatigable  Schenck  resolved  to  make 
an  attempt  on  the  important  town  of  Nimeguen.  He  with 
great  caution  embarked  a  chosen  body  of  troops  on  the  Wahal, 
and  arrived  under  the  walls  of  Nimeguen  at  sunrise  on  the 
morning  chosen  for  the  attack.  His  enterprise  seemed  al- 
most crowned  with  success ;  when  the  inhabitants,  recovering 
from  their  fright,  precipitated  themselves  from  the  town; 
forced  the  assailants  to  retreat  to  their  boats ;  and,  carrying 

*  Hume.  t  Strype,  vol.  iii.p.  525.  J  Hume. 


1591.  SUCCESSES  or  prince  maurice.  165 

the  combat  into  those  overcharged  and  fragile  vessels,  upset 
several,  and  among  others  that  which  contained  Schenck 
himself,  who,  covered  with  wounds,  and  fighting  to  the  last 
gasp,  was  drowned  with  the  greater  part  of  his  followers. 
His  body,  when  recovered,  was  treated  with  the  utmost  in- 
dignity, quartered,  and  hung  in  portions  over  the  different 
gates  of  the  city.* 

The  following  year  was  distinguished  by  another  daring 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Hollanders,  but  followed  by  a  diS 
ferent  result.  A  captain  named  Haranguer  concerted  with 
one  Adrien  Vandenberg,  a  plan  for  the  surprise  of  Breda,  on 
the  possession  of  which  prince  Maurice  had  set  a  great  value. 
The  associates  contrived  to  conceal  in  a  boat,  laden  with  turf 
(which  formed  the  principal  fuel  of  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  the  country,)  and  of  which  Vandenberg  was  master, 
eighty  determined  soldiers,  and  succeeded  in  arriving  close  to 
the  city  without  any  suspicion  being  excited.  One  of  the  sol- 
diers, named  Matthew  Helt,  being  suddenly  affected  with  a 
violent  cough,  implored  his  comrades  to  put  him  to  death,  to 
avoid  the  risk  of  a  discovery.  But  a  corporal  of  the  city  guard 
having  inspected  the  cargo  with  unsuspecting  carelessness, 
the  immolation  of  the  brave  soldier  became  unnecessary,  and 
the  boat  was  dragged  into  the  basin  by  the  assistance  of  some 
of  the  very  garrison  who  were  so  soon  to  fall  victims  to  the 
stratagem.  At  midnight  the  concealed  soldiers  quitted  their 
hiding-places,  leaped  on  shore,  killed  the  sentinels,  and  easily 
became  masters  of  the  citadel.  Prince  Maurice,  following 
close  with  his  army,  soon  forced  the  town  to  submit,  and  put 
it  into  so  good  a  state  of  defence,  that  count  Mansfield,  who 
was  sent  to  retake  it,  was  obliged  to  retreat  afler  useless  ef- 
forts to  fulfil  his  mission. 

The  duke  of  Parma,  whose  constitution  was  severely  injured 
by  the  constant  fatigues  of  war  and  the  anxieties  attending  on 
the  late  transactions,  had  snatched  a  short  interval  for  the 
purpose  of  recruiting  his  health  at  the  waters  of  Spa.  While 
at  that  place  he  received  urgent  orders  from  Philip  to  aban- 
don for  a  while  all  his  proceedings  in  the  Netherlands,  and  to 
hasten  into  France  with  his  whole  disposable  force,  to  assist 
the  army  of  the  League.  The  battle  of  Yvri  (in  which  the 
son  of  the  unfortunate  count  Egmont  met  his  death  while 
fighting  in  the  service  of  his  father's  royal  murderer)  had 
raised  the  prospects  and  hopes  of  Henry  IV.  to  a  high  pitch  ; 
and  Paris,  which  he  closely  besieged,  was  on  the  point  of 
yielding  to  his  arms.  The  duke  of  Parma  received  his  uncle's 

*  D'Ewez. 


166  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1591. 

orders  with  great  repugnance ;  and  lamented  the  necessity  of 
leaving  the  field  of  his  former  exploits  open  to  the  enterprise 
and  talents  of  prince  Maurice.  He  nevertheless  oheyed ;  and 
leaving  count  Mansfield  at  the  head  of  the  government,  he 
conducted  his  troops  against  the  royal  opponent,  who  alone 
seemed  fully  worthy  of  coping  w^ith  him. 

The  attention  of  all  Europe  was  now  fixed  on  the  exciting 
spectacle  of  a  contest  between  these  two  greatest  captains  of 
the  age.  The  glory  of  success,  the  fruit  of  consummate  skill, 
was  gained  by  Alexander ;  who,  by  an  admirable  manoeuvre, 
got  possession  of  the  town  of  Lagny-sur-Seine,  under  the  very 
eyes  of  Henry  and  his  whole  army,  and  thus  acquired  the 
means  of  providing  Paris  with  every  thing  requisite  for  its 
defence.  The  French  monarch  saw  all  his  projects  baffled, 
and  his  hopes  frustrated ;  while  his  antagonist,  having  fully 
completed  his  object,  drew  ofi'  his  army  through  Champagne, 
and  made  a  fine  retreat  through  an  enemy's  country,  harassed 
at  every  step,  but  with  scarcely  any  loss. 

But  while  this  expedition  added  greatly  to  the  renown  of 
the  general,  it  considerably  injured  the  cause  of  Spain  in  the 
Low  Countries.  Prince  Maurice,  taking  prompt  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  his  great  rival,  had  made  himself  master  of  sev- 
eral fortresses ;  and  some  Spanish  regiments  having  mutinied 
against  the  commanders  left  behind  by  the  duke  of  Parma, 
others,  encouraged  by  the  impunity  they  enjoyed,  were  ready 
on  the  slightest  pretext  to  follow  their  example.  Maurice 
did  not  lose  a  single  opportunity  of  profiting  by  circumstances 
so  favorable ;  and  even  afler  the  return  of  Alexander  he  seized 
on  Zutphen,  Deventer,  and  Nimeguen,  despite  of  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Spanish  army.  The  duke  of  Parma,  daily  breaking 
down  under  the  progress  of  disease,  and  agitated  by  these  re- 
verses, repaired  again  to  Spa,  taking  at  once  every  possible 
means  for  the  recruitment  of  his  army  and  the  recovery  of 
his  health,  on  which  its  discipline  and  the  chances  of  success 
now  so  evidently  depended. 

But  all  his  plans  were  again  frustrated  by  a  renewal  of 
Philip's  peremptory  orders  to  march  once  more  into  France, 
to  uphold  the  failing  cause  of  the  League  against  the  intre- 
pidity and  talent  of  Henry  IV.  At  this  juncture  the  emperor 
Rodolf  again  offered  his  mediation  between  Spain  and  the 
United  Provinces.  But  it  was  not  likely  that  the  confederated 
States,  at  the  very  moment  when  their  cause  began  to  tri- 
umph, and  their  commerce  was  every  day  becoming  more 
and  more  flourishing,  would  consent  to  make  any  compromise 
with  the  tyranny  they  were  at  length  in  a  fair  way  of  crush- 


1592.      DEATH  OF  THE  DUKE  OF  PARMA.       167 

The  duke  of  Parma  again  appeared  in  France  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1592 ;  and,  having  formed  his  communi- 
cations with  the  army  of  the  League,  marched  to  the  relief 
of  the  city  of  Rouen,  at  that  period  pressed  to  the  last  extrem- 
ity by  the  Huguenot  forces.  Atler  some  sharp  skirmishes — 
and  one  in  particular,  in  which  Henry  IV.  suffered  his  valor 
to  lead  him  into  a  too  rash  exposure  of  his  own  and  his  army's 
safety — a  series  of  manoiuvres  took  place,  which  displayed 
the  talents  of  the  rival  generals  in  the  most  brilliant  aspect. 
Alexander  at  length  succeeded  in  raising  the  siege  of  Rouen, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Condebec,  which  commanded 
the  navigation  of  the  Seine.  Henry,  taking  advantage  of 
what  appeared  an  irreparable  fault  on  the  part  of  the  duke, 
invested  his  army  in  the  hazardous  position  he  had  chosen ; 
but  while  believing  that  he  had  the  whole  of  his  enemies  in 
his  power,  he  found  that  Alexander  had  passed  the  Seine 
with  his  entire  force — raising  his  military  renown  to  the  ut- 
most possible  height,  by  a  retreat  which  it  was  deemed  ut- 
terly impossible  to  effect.* 

On  his  return  to  the  Netherlands,  the  duke  found  himself 
again  under  the  necessity  of  repairing  to  Spa,  in  search  of 
some  relief  from  the  suffering,  which  was  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  effects  of  a  wound  received  in  this  last  cam- 
paign. In  spite  of  his  shattered  constitution,  he  maintained 
to  the  latest  moment  the  most  active  endeavors  for  the  re- 
organization of  his  army ;  and  he  was  preparing  for  a  new  ex- 
pedition into  France,  when,  fortunately  for  the  good  cause  in 
both  countries,  he  was  surprised  by  death  on  the  3d  of  De- 
cember, 1592,  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Vaast,  near  Arras,  at  the 
age  of  forty-seven  years.  As  it  was  hard  to  imagine  that 
Philip  would  suffer  any  one  who  had  excited  his  jealousy  to 
die  a  natural  death,  that  of  the  duke  of  Parma  was  attributed 
to  slow  poison. 

Alexander  of  Parma  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable, and,  it  may  be  added,  one  of  the  greatest,  charac- 
ters of  his  day.  Most  historians  have  upheld  him  even  higher 
perhaps  than  he  should  be  placed  on  the  scale;  asserting  that 
he  can  be  reproached  with  very  few  of  the  vices  of  the  age 
in  which  he  lived.f  Others  consider  this  judgment  too  favora- 
ble, and  accuse  him  of  participation  in  all  the  crimes  of 
Philip,  whom  he  served  so  zealously.  |  His  having  excited 
the  jealousy  of  the  tyrant,  or  even  had  he  been  put  to  death 
by  his  orders,  would  little  influence  the  question ;  for  Philip 
was  quite  capable  of  ingratitude  or  murder,  to  either  an  ac- 

*  Browing,  Hist,  of  the  Huguenots.  t  Giotius.  }  Cerisier. 


168  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1592 

complice  or  an  opponent  of  his  baseness.  But  even  allowing 
that  Alexander's  fine  qualities  were  sullied  by  his  complicity 
in  these  odious  measures,  we  must  still  in  justice  admit  that 
they  were  too  much  in  the  spirit  of  the  times,  and  particu- 
larly of  the  school  in  which  he  was  trained ;  and  while  we 
lament  that  his  political  or  private  faults  place  him  on  so 
low  a  level,  we  must  rank  him  as  one  of  the  very  first  mas- 
ters in  the  art  of  war  in  his  own  or  any  other  age. 


CHAR  XIV. 
1592—1599. 

TO  THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  BELGIUM  AND  THE  DEATH  OF  PHILIP  II. 

The  duke  of  Parma  had  chosen  the  count  of  Mansfield  for 
his  successor,  and  the  nomination  was  approved  by  the  king. 
He  entered  on  his  government  under  most  disheartening  cir- 
cumstances. The  rapid  conquests  of  prince  Maurice  in  Bra- 
bant and  Flanders  were  scarcely  less  mortifying  than  the 
total  disorganization  into  which  those  two  provinces  had  fallen. 
They  were  ravaged  by  bands  of  robbers  called  Picaroons, 
whose  audacity  reached  such  a  height,  that  they  opposed  in 
large  bodies  the  forces  sent  for  their  suppression  by  the  gov- 
ernment. They  on  one  occasion  killed  the  provost  of  Flanders, 
and  burned  his  lieutenant  in  a  hollow  tree  ;  and  on  another 
they  mutilated  a  whole  troop  of  the  national  militia,  and  their 
commander,  with  circumstances  of  most  revolting  cruelty.* 

The  authority  of  governor-general,  though  not  the  title, 
was  now  fully  shared  by  the  count  of  Fuentes,  who  was  sent 
to  Brussels  by  the  king  of  Spain ;  and  the  ill  effects  of  this 
double  viceroyalty  was  soon  seen,  in  the  brilliant  progress  of 
prince  Maurice,  and  the  continual  reverses  sustained  by  the 
royalist  armies.  The  king,  still  bent  on  projects  of  bigotry, 
sacrificed  without  scruple  men  and  treasure  for  the  overthrow 
of  Henry  IV.  and  the  success  of  the  League.  The  affairs  of 
the  Netherlands  seemed  now  a  secondary  object;  and  he 
drew  largely  on  his  forces  in  that  country  for  reinforcements 
to  the  ranks  of  his  tottering  allies.  A  final  blow  was,  how- 
ever, struck  against  the  hopes  of  intolerance  in  France,  and 
to  the  existence  of  the  League,  by  the  conversion  of  Henry  IV, 
to  the  Catholic  religion;   he  deeming  theological  disputes, 

*  D'Ewez. 


1594.  THE   ARCHDUKE    ERNEST.  169 

which  put  the  happmess  of  a  whole  kingdom  in  jeopardy,  as 
quite  subordinate  to  the  public  good.* 

Such  was  the  prosperity  of  the  United  Provinces,  that 
they  had  been  enabled  to  send  a  large  supply,  both  of  money 
and  men,  to  the  aid  of  Henry,  their  constant  and  generous 
ally.  And  notwithstanding  this,  their  armies  and  fleets,  so 
far  from  suffering  diminution,  were  augmented  day  by  day. 
Philip,  resolved  to  summon  up  all  his  energy  for  the  revival 
of  the  war  against  the  republic,  now  appointed  the  archduke 
Ernest,  brother  of  the  emperor  Rodolf,  to  the  post  which  the 
disunion  of  Mansfield  and  Fuentes  rendered  as  embarrassing 
as  it  had  become  inglorious.  This  prince,  of  a  gentle  and 
conciliatory  character,  was  received  at  Brussels  with  great 
magnificence  and  general  joy ;  his  presence  reviving  the 
deep-felt  hopes  of  peace  entertained  by  the  suffering  people. 
Such  were  also  the  cordial  wishes  of  the  prince  ;t  but  more 
than  one  design,  formed  at  this  period  against  the  life  of 
prince  Maurice,  frustrated  every  expectation  of  the  kind.  A 
priest  of  the  province  of  Namur,  named  Michael  Renichon, 
disguised  as  a  soldier,  was  the  new  instrument  meant  to  strike 
another  blow  at  the  greatness  of  the  house  of  Nassau,  in  the 
person  of  its  gallant  representative,  prince  Maurice ;  as  also 
in  that  of  his  brother,  Frederic  Henry,  then  ten  years  of  age. 
On  the  confession  of  the  intended  assassin,  he  was  employed 
by  count  Berlaimont  to  murder  the  two  princes.  Renichon 
happily  mismanaged  the  affair,  and  betrayed  his  intention. 
He  was  arrested  at  Breda,  conducted  to  the  Hague,  and  there 
tried  and  executed  on  the  3d  of  June,  1594.|  This  miserable 
wretch  accused  the  archduke  Ernest  of  having  countenanced 
his  attempt ;  but  nothing  whatever  tends  to  criminate,  while 
every  probability  acquits,  that  prince  of  such  a  participation. 

In  this  same  year  a  soldier  named  Peter  Dufour  embarked 
in  a  like  atrocious  plot.  He,  too,  was  seized  and  executed 
before  he  could  carry  it  into  effect ;  and  to  his  dying  hour 
persisted  in  accusing  the  archduke  of  being  his  instigator. 
But  neither  the  judges  who  tried,  nor  the  best  historians  who 
record,  his  intended  crime,  gave  any  belief  to  this  accusation.  { 
The  mild  and  honorable  disposition  of  the  prince  held  a  suffi- 
cient guarantee  against  its  likelihood ;  and  it  is  not  less 
pleasing  to  be  able  fully  to  join  in  the  prevalent  opinion,  than 
to  mark  a  spirit  of  candor  and  impartiality  break  forth  through 
the  mass  of  bad  and  violent  passions  which  crowd  the  records 
of  that  age. 

But  all  the  esteem  inspired  by  the  personal  chaiacter  of 

*  Hume.  t  Bentivoglio.  X  Le  Petit,  liv.  7.  c.  2.  §  Meteren. 

P 


170  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1595. 

Ernest  could  not  overcome  the  repugnance  of  the  United 
Provinces  to  trust  to  the  apparent  sincerity  of  the  tyrant  in 
whose  name  he  made  his  overtures  for  peace.  They  were  all 
respectfully  and  firmly  rejected ;  and  prince  Maurice,  in  the 
mean  time,  with  his  usual  activity,  passed  the  Meuse  and  the 
Rhine,  and  invested  and  quickly  took  the  town  of  Groningen, 
by  which  he  consummated  the  establishment  of  the  republic, 
and  secured  its  rank  among  the  principal  powers  of  Europe. 

The  archduke  Ernest,  finding  all  his  efforts  for  peace  frus- 
trated, and  all  hopes  of  gaining  his  object  by  hostility  to  be 
vain,  became  a  prey  to  disappointment  and  regret,  and  died; 
from  the  effects  of  a  slow  fever,  on  the  21st  of  February, 
1595 ;  leaving  to  the  count  of  Fuentes  the  honors  and  anxie- 
ties of  the  government,  subject  to  the  ratification  of  the  king. 
This  nobleman  began  the  exercise  of  his  temporary  functions 
by  an  irruption  into  France,  at  the  head  of  a  small  army ; 
war  having  been  declared  against  Spain  by  Henry  IV.,  who, 
on  his  side,  had  dispatched  the  admiral  de  Villars  to  attack 
Philip's  possessions  in  Hainault  and  Artois.  This  gallant 
officer  lost  a  battle  and  his  life  in  the  contest ;  and  Fuentes, 
encouraged  by  the  victory,  took  some  frontier  towns,  and  laid 
siege  to  Cambray,  the  great  object  of  his  plans.  The  citi- 
zens, who  detested  their  governor,  the  marquis  of  Bologni,  who 
had  for  some  time  assumed  an  independent  tyranny  over  them, 
gave  up  the  place  to  the  besiegers ;  and  the  citadel  surren- 
dered some  days  later.*  After  this  exploit  Fuentes  returned 
to  Brussels,  where,  notwithstanding  his  success,  he  was  ex- 
tremely unpopular.  He  had  placed  a  part  of  his  forces  under 
the  command  of  Mondragon,  one  of  the  oldest  and  cleverest 
officers  in  the  service  of  Spain.  Some  trifling  affairs  took 
place  in  Brabant ;  but  the  arrival  of  the  archduke  Albert, 
whom  the  king  had  appointed  to  succeed  his  brother  Ernest 
in  the  office  of  governor-general,  deprived  Fuentes  of  any 
further  opportunity  of  signalizing  his  talents  for  supreme 
command.  Albert  arrived  at  Brussels  on  the  11th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1596,  accompanied  by  the  prince  of  Orange,  who, 
when  count  of  Beuren,  had  been  carried  off  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  twenty-eight  years  previously,  and  held 
captive  in  Spain  during  the  whole  of  that  period,  f 

The  archduke  Albert,  fifth  son  of  the  emperor  Maximilian 
II.,  and  brother  of  Rodolf,  stood  high  in  the  opinion  of  Philip 
his  uncle,  and  merited  his  reputation  for  talents,  bravery,  and 
prudence.  He  had  been  early  made  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
and  afterwards  cardinal ;  but  his  profession  was  not  that  of 

*  Bentivoglio.  t  Meteren,  liv.  18. 


1597.  THE   ARCHDUKE   ALBERT.  171 

these  nominal  dignities.  He  was  a  warrior  and  politician 
of  considerable  capacity ;  and  had  for  some  years  faithfully 
served  tlie  king,  as  viceroy  of  Portugal.  But  Philip  meant 
him  for  the  more  independent  situation  of  sovereign  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  at  the  same  time  destined  him  to  be  the 
husband  of  his  daughter  Isabella.  He  now  sent  him,  in  the 
capacity  of  governor-general,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  im- 
portant change ;  at  once  to  gain  the  good  graces  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  soothe,  by  this  removal  from  Philip's  too  close  neigh- 
borhood, the  jealousy  of  his  son  the  hereditary  prince  of  Spain. 
Albert  brought  with  him  to  Brussels  a  small  reinforcement 
for  the  army,  with  a  large  supply  of  money,  more  wanting 
at  this  conjuncture  than  men.  He  highly  praised  the  conduct 
of  Fuentes  in  the  operations  just  ifinished ;  and  resolved  to 
continue  the  war  on  the  same  plan,  but  with  forces  much  su- 
perior. 

He  opened  his  first  campaign  early ;  and,  by  a  display  of 
clever  manoeuvring,  which  threatened  an  attempt  to  force 
the  French  to  raise  the  siege  of  La  Fere,  in  the  heart  of  Pi- 
cardy,  he  concealed  his  real  design — the  capture  of  Calais ; 
and  he  succeeded  in  its  completion  almost  before  it  was  sus- 
pected. The  Spanish  and  Walloon  troops,  led  on  by  Rone, 
a  distinguished  officer,  carried  the  first  defences :  after  nine 
days  of  siege  the  place  was  forced  to  surrender ;  and  in  a 
few  more  the  citadel  followed  the  example.  The  archduke 
soon  after  took  the  towns  of  Ardres  and  Hulst ;  and  by  pru- 
dently avoiding  a  battle,  to  which  he  was  constantly  provoked 
by  Henry  IV.,  who  commanded  the  French  army  in  person, 
he  established  his  character  for  military  talent  of  no  ordinary 
degree. 

He  at  the  same  time  made  overtures  of  reconciliation  to 
the  United  Provinces,  and  hoped  that  the  return  of  the  prince 
of  Orange  would  be  a  means  of  effecting  so  desirable  a  pur- 
pose. But  the  Dutch  were  not  to  be  deceived  by  the  apparent 
sincerity  of  Spanish  negotiation.  They  even  doubted  the 
sentiments  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  whose  attachments  and 
principles  had  been  formed  in  so  hated  a  school ;  and  nothing 
passed  between  them  and  him  but  mutual  civilities.  They 
clearly  evinced  their  disapprobation  of  his  intended  visit  to 
Holland ;  and  he  consequently  fixed  Iiis  residence  in  Brussels, 
passing  his  life  in  an  inglorious  neutrality. 

A  naval  expedition  formed  in  this  year  by  the  English  and 
Dutch  against  Cadiz,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Essex,  and 
counts  Ix)uis  and  William  of  Nassau,  cousins  of  prince  Mau- 
rice, was  crowned  with  brilliant  success,  and  somewhat  con- 
soled the  provinces  for  the  contemporary  exploits  of  the  arch- 


172  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1597. 

duke.*  But  the  following  year  opened  with  an  affair,  which 
at  once  proved  his  unceasing  activity,  and  added  largely  to 
the  reputation  of  his  rival,  prince  Maurice.  The  former  had 
detached  the  count  of  Varas,  with  about  6000  men,  for  the 
purpose  of  invading  the  province  of  Holland :  but  Maurice, 
with  equal  energy  and  superior  talent,  followed  his  move- 
ments ;  came  up  with  him  near  Turnhout,  on  the  24th  of 
January,  1597;  and  after  a  sharp  action,  of  which  the  Dutch 
cavalry  bore  the  whole  brunt,  Varas  was  killed,  and  his  troops 
defeated  with  considerable  loss.f 

This  was  in  its  consequences  a  most  disastrous  affair  to  the 
archduke.  His  army  was  disorganized,  and  his  finances  ex- 
hausted ;  while  the  confidence  of  the  states  in  their  troops 
and  their  general  was  considerably  raised.  But  the  taking 
of  Amiens  by  Portocarrero,  one  of  the  most  enterprising  of 
the  Spanish  captains,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  failing  fortunes 
of  Albert.  This  gallant  officer,  whose  greatness  of  mind, 
according  to  some  historians,  was  much  disproportioned  to 
the  smallness  of  his  person, J  gained  possession  of  that  im- 
portant town  by  a  well-conducted  stratagem,  and  maintained 
his  conquest  valiantly  till  he  was  killed  in  its  defence.  Henry 
IV.  made  prodigious  efforts  to  recover  the  place,  the  chief 
bulwark  on  that  side  of  France ;  and  having  forced  Mon- 
tenegro, the  worthy  successor  of  Portocarrero,  to  capitulate, 
granted  him  and  his  garrison  most  honorable  conditions. 
Henry,  having  secured  Amiens  against  any  new  attack, 
returned  to  Paris,  and  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  the  city. 

During  this  year  prince  Maurice  took  a  number  of  towns 
in  rapid  succession ;  and  the  states,  according  to  their  cus- 
tom, caused  various  medals,  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  to  be 
struck,  to  commemorate  the  victories  which  had  signalized 
their  arms.  5 

Philip  II.,  feeling  himself  approaching  the  termination  of 
his  long  and  agitating  career,  now  wholly  occupied  himself 
in  negotiations  for  peace  with  France.  Henry  IV.  desired  it 
as  anxiously.  The  pope,  Clement  VIII.,  encouraged  by  his 
exhortations  this  mutual  inclmation.     The  king  of  Poland 


*  Hume. 

t  Thia  action  may  be  taken  aa  a  fair  sample  of  the  difficulty  with  which 
any  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the  relative  losses  on  such  occasions.  The 
Dutch  historians  state  the  loss  of  the  royalists,  in  killed,  at  upwards  of  2000. 
Meteren,  a  jpfood  authority,  says  the  peasants  buried  2250;  while  Bentivo|f- 
lio,  an  Italian  writer  in  the  interest  of  Spain,  makes  the  number  exactly 
half  that  amount.  Grotius  gays  that  the  loss  of  the  Dutch  was  four  men 
killed.  Bentivoglio  states  it  at  .100.  But,  at  either  computation,  it  is  clear 
that  the  affair  was  a  brilliant  one  on  the  part  of  prince  Maurice. 

I  Grotius     De  Thou  -  §  D'Ewn^ 


1598.  ALBERT   AND    ISABELLA.  173 

sent  ambassadors  to  the  Hague  and  to  London,  to  induce  the 
states  and  queen  Elizabeth  to  become  parties  in  a  general 
pacification.  These  overtures  led  to  no  conclusion ;  but  the 
conferences  between  France  and  Spain  went  on  with  apparent 
cordiality  and  great  promptitude,  and  a  peace  was  concluded 
between  these  powers  at  Vervins,  on  the  2d  of  May,  1598. 

Shortly  after  the  publication  of  this  treaty,  another  im- 
portant act  was  made  known  to  the  world,  by  which  Philip 
ceded  to  Albert  and  Isabella,  on  their  being  formally  affianced, 
— a  ceremony  which  now  took  place, — the  sovereignty  of 
Burgundy  and  the  Netherlands.  This  act  bears  date  the  6tb 
of  May,  and  was  proclaimed  with  all  the  solemnity  due  to  so 
important  a  transaction.  It  contained  thirteen  articles ;  and 
was  based  on  the  misfortunes  which  the  absence  of  the  sov- 
ereign had  hitherto  caused  to  the  Low  Countries.  The  Catho- 
lic religion  was  declared  that  of  the  state,  in  its  full  integrity. 
The  provinces  were  guarantied  against  dismemberment. 
The  archdukes,  by  which  title  the  joint  sovereigns  were  de- 
signated without  any  distinction  of  sex,  were  secured  in  the 
possession,  with  right  of  succession  to  their  children ;  and  a 
provision  was  added,  that  in  default  of  posterity  their  posses- 
sions should  revert  to  the  Spanish  crown.*  The  infanta  Isa- 
bella soon  sent  her  procuration  to  the  archduke,  her  affianced 
husband,  giving  him  full  power  and  authority  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  ceded  dominions  in  her  name  as  in  his  own ;  and 
Albert  was  inaugurated  with  great  pomp  at  Brussels,  on  the 
22d  of  August  Having  put  every  thing  in  order  for  the 
regulation  of  the  government  during  his  absence,  he  set  out 
for  Spain,  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  his  spousals,  and 
bringing  back  his  bride  to  the  chief  seat  of  their  joint  power. 
But  before  his  departure  he  wrote  to  the  various  states  of  the 
republic,  and  to  prince  Maurice  himself,  strongly  recommend- 
ing submission  and  reconciliation.  These  letters  received 
no  answer;  a  new  plot  against  the  life  of  prince  Maurice,  by 
a  wretched  individual  named  Peter  Pann,  having  aroused 
the  indignation  of  the  country,  and  determined  it  to  treat 
with  suspicion  and  contempt  every  insidious  proposition  from 
the  tyranny  it  defied. f 

Albert  placed  his  uncle,  the  cardinal  Andrew  of  Austria, 
at  the  head  of  the  temporary  government,  and  set  out  on  his 
journey ;  taking  the  little  town  of  Halle  in  his  route,  and  de- 
posing at  the  altar  of  the  Virgin,  who  is  there  held  in  par- 
ticular honor,  his  cardinal's  hat  as  a  token  of  his  veneration. 
He  had  not  made  much  progress  when  he  received  accounts 

♦Grotius,  Hist.  lib.  viii.  t  D'Ewez. 

P2 


174  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1599. 

of  the  demise  of  Philip  XL,  who  died,  after  long  suffering*, 
and  with  great  resignation,  on  the  13th  of  September,  1598, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-two.*  Albert  was  several  months  on 
his  journey  through  Germany ;  and  the  ceremonials  of  his 
'union  with  the  infanta  did  not  take  place  till  the  18th  of 
April,  1599,  when  it  was  finally  solemnized  in  the  city  of 
Valencia  in  Spain. 

This  transaction,  by  which  the  Netherlands  were  positive- 
ly erected  into  a  separate  sovereignty,  seems  naturally  to 
make  the  limits  of  another  epoch  in  their  history.  It  com- 
pletely decided  the  division  between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern provinces,  which,  although  it  had  virtually  taken  place 
long  previous  to  this  period,  could  scarcely  be  considered  as 
formally  consummated  until  now.  Here  then  we  shall  pause 
anew,  and  take  a  rapid  review  of  the  social  state  of  the  Neth- 
erlands during  the  last  half  century,  which  was  beyond  all 
doubt  the  most  important  period  of  tlieir  history,  from  the 
earliest  times  till  the  present. 

It  has  been  seen  that  when  Charles  V.  resigned  his  throne 
and  the  possession  of  his  vast  dominions  to  his  son,  arts,  com- 
merce, and  manufactures  had  risen  to  a  state  of  considerable 
perfection  throughout  the  Netherlands.  The  revolution,  of 
which  we  have  traced  the  rise  and  progress,  naturally  pro- 
duced to  those  provinces  which  relapsed  into  slavery  a  most 
lamentable  change  in  every  branch  of  industry,  and  struck  a 
blow  at  the  general  prosperity,  the  effects  of  which  are  felt 
to  this  very  day.  Arts,  science,  and  literature  were  sure  to 
be  checked  and  withered  in  the  blaze  of  civil  war ;  and  we 
have  now  to  mark  the  retrograde  movements  of  most  of  those 
charms  and  advantages  of  civilized  life,  in  which  Flanders 
and  the  other  southern  states  were  so  rich. 

The  rapid  spread  of  enlightenment  on  religious  subjects 
soon  converted  the  manufactories  and  workshops  of  Flanders 
into  so  many  conventicles  of  reform;  and  the  clear-sighted 
artisans  fled  in  thousands  from  the  tyranny  of  Alva  into  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Holland, — those  happier  countries,  where 
the  government  adopted  and  went  hand  in  hand  with  the 
progress  of  rational  belief  Commerce  followed  the  fate 
of  manufactures.  The  foreign  merchants  one  by  one  aban- 
doned the  theatre  of  bigotry  and  persecution ;  and  even 
Antwerp,  which  had  succeeded  Bruges  as  the  great  mart 
of  European  traffic,  was  ruined  by  the  horrible  excesses 
of  the  Spanish  soldiery,  and  never  recovered  from  the  shock. 
Its  trade,  its  wealth,  and  its  prosperity,  were  gradually  trans- 

♦  Watson. 


1599.  PROGRESS    OF    COMMERCE.  175 

ferred  to  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  the  towns  of  Holland 
and  Zealand ;  and  the  growth  of  Dutch  commerce  attained 
its  proud  maturity  in  the  establishment  of  the  India  company 
in  1596,  the  effects  of  which  we  shall  have  hereafter  more 
particularly  to  dwell  on. 

The  exciting  and  romantic  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese 
and  Spanish  navigators  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centu- 
ries, roused  all  the  ardor  of  other  nations  for  those  distant  ad- 
ventures ;  and  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  were  early 
influenced  by  the  general  spirit  of  Europe.  If  they  were  not 
the  discoverers  of  new  worlds,  they  were  certainly  the  first 
to  make  the  name  of  European  respected  and  venerated  by 
the  natives. 

Animated  by  the  ardor  which  springs  from  the  spirit  of 
freedom  and  the  enthusiasm  of  success,  the  United  Provinces 
labored  for  the  discovery  of  new  outlets  for  their  commerce 
and  navigation.  Tlie  government  encouraged  the  specula- 
tions of  individuals,  which  promised  fresh  and  fertile  sources 
of  revenue,  so  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  war.* 
Until  the  year  1581  the  merchants  of  Holland  and  Zealand 
were  satisfied  to  find  the  productions  of  India  at  Lisbon, 
which  was  the  mart  of  that  branch  of  trade  ever  since  the 
Portuguese  discovered  the  passage  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  But  Philip  II.,  having  conquered  Portugal,  excluded 
the  United  Provinces  from  the  ports  of  that  country ;  and 
their  enterprising  mariners  were  from  that  period  driven  to 
those  efforts  which  rapidly  led  to  private  fortune  and  general 
prosperity.  The  English  had  opened  the  way  in  this  career ; 
and  the  states-general  having  offered  a  large  reward  for  the 
discovery  of  a  north-west  passage,  frequent  and  most  adven- 
turous voyages  took  place.  Houtman,  Le  Maire,  Heemskirk, 
Ryp,  and  others,  became  celebrated  for  their  enterprise,  and 
some  for  their  perilous  and  interesting  adventures. 

The  United  Provinces  were  soon  without  any  rival  on  the 
seas.  In  Europe  alone  they  had  1200  merchant-ships  in  ac- 
tivity, and  upwards  of  70,000  sailors  constantly  employed.f 
They  built  annually  2000  vessels.  In  the  year  1598,  eighty 
ships  sailed  from  their  ports  for  the  Indies  or  America.  They 
carried  on,  besides,  an  extensive  trade  on  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
whence  they  brought  large  quantities  of  gold-dust;  and 
found,  in  short,  in  all  quarters  of  tlie  globe  the  reward  of 
their  skill,  industry,  and  courage. 

The  spirit  of  conquest  soon  became  grafted  on  the  habits 
of  trade.  Expedition  succeeded  to  expedition.  Failure  taught 

♦  Grotius,  Hist.  viii.  %0,  &c.  j  Grot.  iv.  131. 


176  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1599. 

wisdom  to  those  who  did  not  want  bravery.  The  random 
efforts  of  individuals  were  succeeded  by  organized  plans,  un- 
der associations  well  constituted  and  wealthy;  and  these 
soon  gave  birth  to  those  eastern  and  western  companies  be- 
fore alluded  to.  The  disputes  between  the  English  and  the 
Hanseatic  towns  were  carefully  observed  by  the  Dutch,  and 
turned  to  their  own  advantage.  The  English  manufacturers, 
who  quickly  began  to  flourish,  from  the  influx  of  Flemish 
workmen  under  the  encouragement  of  Elizabeth,  formed 
companies  in  the  Netherlands,  and  sent  their  cloths  into  those 
very  towns  of  Germany  which  formerly  possessed  the  exclu- 
sive privilege  of  their  manufacture.*  These  towns  naturally 
felt  dissatisfied,  and  their  complaints  were  encouraged  by  the 
king  of  Spain.  The  English  adventurers  received  orders  to 
quit  the  empire ;  and,  invited  by  the  states-general,  many  of 
them  fixed  their  residence  in  Middleburg,  which  became 
the  most  celebrated  woollen  market  in  Europe. 

The  establishment  of  the  Jews  in  the  towns  of  the  republic 
forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in  the  annals  of  trade.  This  peo- 
ple, so  outraged  by  the  lothesome  bigotry  which  Christians 
have  not  blushed  to  call  religion,  so  far  from  being  depressed 
by  the  general  persecution,  seemed  to  find  it  a  fresh  stimulus 
to  the  exertion  of  their  industry.  To  escape  death  in  Spam 
and  Portugal  they  took  refuge  in  Holland,  where  toleration 
encouraged,  and  just  principles  of  state  maintained  them. 
They  were  at  first  taken  for  Catholics,  and  subjected  to  sus- 
picion ;  but  when  their  real  faith  was  understood,  they  were 
no  longer  molested. 

Astronomy  and  geography,  two  sciences  so  closely  allied 
with  and  so  essential  to  navigation,  flourished  now  through- 
out Europe.  Ortilius  of  Antwerp,  and  Gerard  Mercator  of 
Rupelmonde,  were  two  of  the  greatest  geographers  of  the 
sixteenth  century ;  and  the  reform  in  the  calendar  at  the  end 
of  that  period  gave  stability  to  the  calculations  of  time,  Avhich 
had  previously  suffered  all  the  inconvenient  fluctuations  at- 
tendant on  the  old  style. 

Literature  had  assumed  during  the  revolution  in  the  Neth- 
erlands the  almost  exclusive  and  repulsive  aspect  of  contro- 
versial learning.  The  university  of  Douay,  installed  in  1562 
as  a  new  screen  against  the  piercing  light  of  reform,  quickly 
became  the  strong-hold  of  intolerance.  That  of  Leyden,  es- 
tablished by  the  efforts  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  soon  after 
the  famous  siege  of  that  town  in  1574,  was  on  a  less  exclusive 
plan — its  professors  being  in  the  first  instance  drawn  from 

*  Meteren,  liv.  19. 


1599.  CRUELTIES    OF   MENDOZA,  177 

Germany.*  Many  Flemish  historians  succeeded  in  this  cen- 
tury to  the  ancient  and  uncultivated  chroniclers  of  preceding- 
times  ;  the  civil  wars  drawing  forth  many  writers,  who  re- 
corded what  they  witnessed,  but  often  in  a  spirit  of  partisan- 
ship and  want  of  candor,  which  seriously  embarrasses  him 
who  desires  to  learn  the  truth  on  both  sides  of  an  important 
question.  Poetry  declined  and  drooped  in  these  times  of  tu- 
mult and  suffering ;  and  the  chambers  of  rhetoric,  to  which 
its  cultivation  had  been  chiefly  due,  gradually  lost  their  in- 
fluence, and  finally  ceased  to  exist. 

In  fixing  our  attention  on  the  republic  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces during  the  epoch  now  completed,  we  feel  the  desire, 
and  lament  the  impossibility,  of  entering  on  the  details  of 
government  in  that  most  remarkable  state.  For  these  we 
must  refer  to  what  appears  to  us  the  best  authority  for  clear 
and  ample  information  on  the  prerogative  of  the  stadtholder, 
the  constitution  of  the  states-general,  the  privileges  of  the 
tribunals  and  local  assemblies,  and  other  points  of  moment 
concerning  the  principles  of  the  Belgic  confederation.! 


CHAP.  XV. 
1599—1604. 

TO    THE    CAMPAIGN    OF   PRINCE   MAURICE    AND   SPINOLA. 

Previous  to  his  departure  for  Spain,  the  archduke  Albert 
had  placed  the  government  of  the  provinces  which  acknow- 
ledged his  domination  in  the  hands  of  his  uncle,  the  cardinal 
Andrew  of  Austria,  leaving  in  command  of  the  army  Fran- 
cisco Mendoza,  admiral  of  Aragon.  The  troops  at  his  dispo- 
sal amounted  to  22,000  figliting  men, — a  formidable  force, 
and  enough  to  justify  the  serious  apprehensions  of  the  re- 
public. Albert,  whose  finances  were  exhausted  by  payments 
made  to  the  numerous  Spanish  and  Italian  mutineers,  had 
left  orders  with  Mendoza  to  secure  some  place  on  the  Rhine, 
which  might  open  a  passage  for  free  quarters  in  the  enemy's 
country.  But  this  unprincipled  officer  forced  his  way  into 
the  neutral  districts  of  Cleves  and  Westphalia ;  and  with  a 
body  of  executioners  ready  to  hang  up  all  who  might  resist, 
and  of  priests  to  prepare  them  for  death,  he  carried  such  ter- 


♦  De  SmeT.  t  See  Cerisier,  Hist.  Gen.  ties  Prov.  Unies,  t.  iv. 


178  HISTORY    OF  THE   NETHERLANDS.  1599. 

ror  on  his  march  that  no  opposition  was  ventured.*  The  atro- 
cious cruelties  of  Mendoza  and  his  troops  baffle  all  descrip- 
tion :  on  one  occasion  they  murdered,  in  cold  blood,  the  count 
of  Walkenstein,  who  surrendered  his  castle  on  the  express 
condition  of  his  freedom ;  and  they  committed  every  possible 
excess  that  may  be  imagined  of  ferocious  soldiery  encouraged 
by  a  base  commander.f 

Prince  Maurice  soon  put  into  motion,  to  oppose  this  army 
of  brigands,  his  small  disposable  force  of  about  7000  men. 
With  these,  however,  and  a  succession  of  masterly  manoeu- 
vres, he  contrived  to  preserve  the  republic  from  invasion,  and 
to  paralyze  and  almost  destroy  an  army  three  times  superior 
in  numbers  to  his  own.J  The  horrors  committed  by  the  Span- 
iards, in  the  midst  of  peace,  and  without  the  slightest  provo- 
cation, could  not  fail  to  excite  the  utmost  indignation  in  a  na- 
tion so  fond  of  liberty  and  so  proud  as  Germany.  The  duchy 
of  Cleves  felt  particularly  aggrieved ;  and  Sybilla,  the  sister 
of  the  duke,  a  real  heroine  in  a  glorious  cause,  so  worked  on 
the  excited  passions  of  the  people  by  her  eloquence  and  her 
tears,  that  she  persuaded  all  the  orders  of  the  state  to  unite 
against  the  odious  enemy.  Some  troops  were  suddenly  raised ; 
and  a  league  was  formed  between  several  princes  of  the  em- 
pire to  revenge  the  common  cause.  The  count  de  la  Lippe 
was  chosen  general  of  their  united  forces ;  and  the  choice 
could  not  have  fallen  on  one  more  certainly  incapable,  or  more 
probably  treacherous.  5 

The  German  army,  with  their  usual  want  of  activity,  did 
not  open  the  campaign  till  the  month  of  June.  It  consisted 
of  14,000  men;  and  never  was  an  army  so  badly  conducted. || 
Without  money,  artillery,  provisions,  or  discipline,  it  was  at 
any  moment  ready  to  break  up  and  abandon  its  incompetent 
general :  and  on  the  very  first  encounter  with  the  enemy,  and 
after  a  loss  of  a  couple  of  hundred  men,  it  became  self-dis- 
banded ;  and,  flying  in  every  direction,  not  a  single  man  could 
be  rallied  to  clear  away  this  disgrace. 

The  states-general,  cruelly  disappointed  at  this  result  of 
measures,  from  which  they  had  looked  for  so  important  a  di- 
version in  their  favor,  now  resolved  on  a  vigorous  exertion  of 
their  own  energies,  and  determined  to  undertake  a  naval  ex- 
pedition of  a  magnitude  greater  than  any  they  had  hitherto 
attempted.  The  force  of  public  opinion  was  at  this  period 
more  powerful  than  it  had  ever  yet  been  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces :  for  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  during  the 

*  Reid,  XV.  427.  t  Meteren,  liv.  xxi.  |  Cerisier. 

§Ibid.  Ij  De  Thou,  liv.  122. 


1600.  ARRIVAL   OF   THE    ARCHDUKES.  179 

life  of  Philip  II.,  conscientiously  believed  that  they  could  not 
lawfully  abjure  the  authority  once  recognized  and  sworn  to, 
became  now  liberated  from  those  respectable  although  ab- 
surd scruples ;  and  the  death  of  one  unfeeling  despot  gave 
thousands  of  new  citizens  to  the  state. 

A  fleet  of  seventy-three  vessels,  carrying  8000  men,  was 
soon  equipped,  under  the  order  of  admiral  Vander  Goes ;  and 
after  a  series  of  attempts  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Portugal, 
Africa,  and  the  -Canary  isles,  this  expedition,  from  which  the 
most  splendid  results  were  expected,  was  shattered,  dispersed, 
and  reduced  to  nothing,  by  a  succession  of  unheard-of  mis- 


To  these  disappointments  were  now  added  domestic  dis- 
sensions in  the  republic,  in  consequence  of  the  new  taxes 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  exigencies  of  the  state.  The 
conduct  of  queen  Elizabeth  greatly  added  to  the  general  em- 
barrassment :  she  called  for  the  payment  of  her  former  loans ; 
insisted  on  the  recall  of  the  English  troops ;  and  declared  her 
resolution  to  make  peace  with  Spain.*  Several  German 
princes  promised  aid  in  men  and  money,  but  never  furnished 
either ;  and  in  this  most  critical  juncture,  Henry  IV.  was  the 
only  foreign  sovereign  who  did  not  abandon  the  republic.  He 
sent  them  1000  Swiss  troops,  whom  he  had  in  his  pay ;  al- 
lowed them  to  levy  8000  more  in  France ;  and  gave  them  a 
loan  of  200,000  crowns, — a  very  convenient  supply  in  their 
exhausted  state. 

The  archdukes  Albert  and  Isabella  arrived  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  September,  and  made  their  entrance  into  Brussels 
with  unexampled  magnificence.  They  soon  found  them- 
selves in  a  situation  quite  as  critical  as  was  that  of  the  United 
Provinces,  and  both  parties  displayed  immense  energy  to 
remedy  their  mutual  embarrassments.  The  winter  was  ex- 
tremely rigorous ;  so  much  so,  as  to  allow  of  military  opera- 
tions being  undertaken  on  the  ice.  Prince  Maurice  soon 
commenced  a  Christmas  campaign  by  taking  the  town  of 
Wachtendenck ;  and  he  followed  up  his  success  by  obtaining 
possession  of  the  important  forts  of  Crevecoeur  and  St.  An- 
drew, in  the  island  of  Bommel.  A  most  dangerous  mutiny 
at  the  same  time  broke  out  in  the  army  of  the  archdukes ; 
and  Albert  seemed  left  without  troops  or  money,  at  the  very 
beguining  of  his  sovereignty. 

But  these  successes  of  prince  Maurice  were  only  the  pre- 
lude to  an  expedition  of  infinitely  more  moment,  arranged 
with  the  utmost  secrecy,  and  executed  with  an  energy  scarcely 

*  Cerisier. 


180  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1600 


1 


to  be  l(X)ked  for  from  the  situation  of  the  states.  This  was 
nothing  less  than  an  invasion  poured  into  the  very  heart  of 
Flanders,  thus  putting  the  archdukes  on  the  defence  of  their 
own  most  vital  possessions,  and  changing  completely  the 
whole  character  of  the  war.*  The  whole  disposable  troops 
of  the  republic,  amounting  to  about  17,000  men,  were  secretly 
assembled  in  the  island  of  Walcheren,  in  the  month  of  June ; 
and  setting  sail  for  Flanders,  they  disembarked  near  Ghent, 
and  arrived  on  the  20th  of  that  month  under  the  walls  of 
Bruges.  Some  previous  negotiations  with  that  town  had  led 
the  prince  to  expect  that  it  would  have  opened  its  gates  at 
his  approach.  In  this  he  was,  however,  disappointed ;  and 
after  taking  possession  of  some  forts  in  the  neighborhood,  he 
continued  his  march  to  Nieuport,  which  place  he  invested  on 
the  1st  of  July. 

At  the  news  of  this  invasion  the  archdukes,  though  taken 
by  surprise,  displayed  a  promptness  and  decision  that  proved 
them  worthy  of  the  sovereignty  which  seemed  at  stake.  With 
incredible  activity  they  mustered,  in  a  few  days,  an  army  of 
12,000  men,  which  they  passed  in  review  near  Ghent.  On 
this  occasion  Isabella,  proving  her  title  to  a  place  among  those 
heroic  women  with  whom  the  age  abounded,  rode  through 
the  royalist  ranks,  and  harangued  them  in  a  style  of  inspiring 
eloquence  that  inflamed  their  courage  and  secured  their  fidel- 
ity. Albert,  seizing  the  moment  of  this  excitement,  put  him- 
self at  their  head,  and  marched  to  seek  the  enemy,  leaving  his 
intrepid  wife  at  Bruges,  the  nearest  town  to  the  scene  of  the 
action  he  was  resolved  on.  He  gained  possession  of  all  the 
forts  taken  and  garrisoned  by  Maurice  a  few  days  before ;  and 
pushing  forward  with  his  apparently  irresistible  troops,  he 
came  up  on  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  July  with  a  large  body 
of  those  of  the  states,  consisting  of  about  3000  men,  sent  for- 
ward under  the  command  of  count  Ernest  of  Nassau  to  recon- 
noitre and  judge  of  the  extent  of  this  most  unexpected  move- 
ment :  for  prince  Maurice  was,  in  his  turn,  completely  sur- 
prised ;  and  not  merely  by  one  of  those  manoeuvres  of  war  by 
which  the  best  generals  are  sometimes  deceived,  but  by  an 
exertion  of  political  vigor  and  capacity  of  which  history  offers 
few  more  striking  examples.  Such  a  circumstance,  however, 
served  only  to  draw  forth  a  fresh  display  of  those  uncommon 
talents,  which  in  so  many  various  accidents  of  war  had  placed 
Maurice  on  the  highest  rank  for  military  talent.  The  detach- 
ment under  count  Ernest  of  Nassau  was  chiefly  composed  of 
Scottish  infantry ;  and  this  small  force  stood  firmly  opposed  to 

*  Grot.  viii.  387,  &c. 


1600,         DEFEAT  OF  THE  ROYALISTS.  181 

the  impetuous  attack  of  the  whole  royalist  army — thus  giving 
time  to  the  main  body  under  the  prince  to  take  up  a  position, 
and  form  in  order  of  battle.  Count  Ernest  was  at  length 
driven  back,  with  the  loss  of  800  men  killed,  almost  all  Scot- 
tish ;  and  being  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  army,  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  Ostend,  which  town  was  in  possession  of 
the  troops  of  the  states. 

The  army  of  Albert  now  marched  on,  flushed  with  this  first 
success  and  confident  of  final  victory.  Prince  Maurice  re- 
ceived them  with  the  courage  of  a  gallant  soldier  and  the  pre- 
caution of  a  consummate  general.  He  had  caused  the  fleet 
of  ships  of  war  and  transports,  which  had  sailed  along  the 
coast  from  Zealand,  and  landed  supplies  of  ammunition  and 
provisions,  to  retire  far  from  the  shore,  so  as  to  leave  to  his 
army  no  chance  of  escape  but  in  victory.  The  commissioners 
from  the  states,  who  always  accompanied  the  prince  as  a 
council  of  observation  rather  than  of  war,  had  retired  to  Os- 
tend in  great  consternation,  to  wait  the  issue  of  the  battle 
which  now  seemed  inevitable.  A  scene  of  deep  feeling  and 
heroism  was  the  next  episode  of  this  memorable  day,  and 
throws  the  charm  of  natural  affection  over  those  circumstances 
in  which  glory  too  seldom  leaves  a  place  for  the  softer  emo- 
tions of  the  heart.  Wlien  the  patriot  army  was  in-  its  position, 
and  firmly  waiting  the  advance  of  the  foe,  prince  Maurice 
turned  to  his  brother,  Frederick  Henry,  then  sixteen  years  of 
age,  and  several  young  noblemen,  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
man, who  like  him  attended  on  the  great  captain  to  learn  the 
art  of  war :  he  pointed  out  in  a  few  words  the  perilous  situa- 
tion in  which  he  was  placed ;  declared  his  resolution  to  con- 
quer or  perish  on  the  battle-field ;  and  recommended  the  boy- 
ish band  to  retire  to  Ostend,  and  wait  for  some  less  desperate 
occasion,  to  share  his  renown  or  revenge  his  fall.  Frederick 
Henry  spurned  the  affectionate  suggestion,  and  swore  to  stand 
by  his  brother  to  the  last;  and  all  his  young  companions 
adopted  the  same  generous  resolution. 

The  army  of  the  states  was  placed  in  order  of  battle,  about 
a  league  in  front  of  Nieuport,  in  the  sand-hills  with  which  the 
neighborhood  abounds,  its  left  wing  resting  on  the  sea-shore. 
Its  losses  of  the  morning,  and  of  the  garrison  left  in  the  forts 
near  Bruges,  reduced  it  to  an  almost  exact  equality  with  that 
of  the  archduke.  Each  of  these  armies  was  composed  of  that 
variety  of  troops  which  made  them  respectively  an  epitome 
of  the  various  nations  of  Europe.  The  patriot  force  contained 
Dutch,  English,  French,  German,  and  Swiss,  under  the  or- 
ders of  count  Louis  of  Nassau,  Sir  Francis  and  Sir  Horace 
Vere,  brothers  and  English  officers  of  great  celebrity,  with 
Q 


182  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1600.| 

other  distinguished  captains.     The  archduke  mustered  Span- 
iards, Italians,  Walloons,  and  Irish  in  his  ranks,  led  on  by 
Mendoza,  La  Berlotta,  and  their  fellow-veterans.  Both  armies 
were  in  the  highest  state  of  discipline,  trained  to  war  by  long 
service,  and  enthusiastic  in  the  several  causes  which  they 
served ;  the  two  highest  principles  of  enthusiasm  urging  them- 
on — religious  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  love  of  free-# 
dom  on  the  other.     The  rival  generals  rode  along  their  re-i 
spective  lines,  addressed  a  few  brief  sentences  of  encourage-* 
ment  to  their  men,  and  presently  the  bloody  contest  began.    '^ 

It  was  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  when  the  archduke 
commenced  the  attack.  His  advanced  guard,  commanded  by 
Mendoza  and  composed  of  those  former  mutineers  who  now 
resolved  to  atone  for  their  misconduct,  marched  across  the 
sand-hills  with  desperate  resolution.  They  soon  came  into 
contact  with  the  English  contingent  under  Francis  Vere,  who 
was  desperately  wounded  in  the  shock.  The  assault  was  al- 
most irresistible.  The  English,  borne  down  by  numbers,  were 
forced  to  give  way ;  but  the  main  body  pressed  on  to  their 
support.  Horace  Vere  stepped  forward  to  supply  his  brother's 
place.  Not  an  inch  of  ground  more  was  gained  or  lost ;  the 
firing  ceased,  and  pikes  and  swords  crossed  each  other  in  the 
resolute  conflict  of  man  to  man.  The  action  became  general 
along  the  whole  line.  The  two  commanders-in-chief  were  at 
all  points.  Nothing  could  exceed  their  mutual  display  of  skill 
and  courage.  At  length  the  Spanish  cavalry,  broken  by  the 
well-directed  fire  of  the  patriot  artillery,  fell  back  on  their 
infantry  and  threw  it  into  confusion.  The  archduke  at  the 
some  instant  was  wounded  by  a  lance  in  the  cheek,  unhorsed, 
and  forced  to  quit  the  field.  The  report  of  his  death,  and  the 
sight  of  his  war-steed  galloping  alone  across  the  field,  spread 
alarm  through  the  royalist  ranks.  Prince  Maurice  saw  and 
seized  on  the  critical  moment.  He  who  had  so  patiently 
maintained  his  position  for  three  hours  of  desperate  conflict, 
now  knew  the  crisis  for  a  prompt  and  general  advance.  He 
gave  the  word  and  led  on  to  the  charge,  and  the  victory  was 
at  once  his  owm.* 

Tlie  defeat  of  the  royalist  army  was  complete.  The  whole 
of  the  artillery,  baggage,  standards,  and  ammunition,  fell  intc 
the  possession  of  the  conquerors.  Night  coming  on  saved 
those  who  fled,  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  prevented  the 
cavalry  from  consummating  the  destruction  of  the  whole.  As 
far  as  the  conflicting  accounts  of  the  various  historians  may 
be  compared  and  calculated  on,  the  royalists  had  3000  killed, 

*  Bentivoglio,  Vandervynct,  &c. 


1600.  CONTINUANCE    OF    HOSTILITIES.  183 

and  among  them  several  officers  of  rank ;  while  the  patriot 
army,  including*  those  who  fell  in  the  morning  action,  lovSt 
something  more  than  half  the  number.  The  archduke,  fur- 
nished with  a  fresh  horse,  gained  Bruges  in  safety ;  but  he 
only  waited  there  long  enough  to  join  his  heroic  wife,  with 
whom  he  proceeded  rapidly  to  Ghent,  and  thence  to  Brussels. 
Mendoza  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  and  with  difficulty 
saved  by  prince  Maurice  from  the  fury  of  the  German  auxilia- 
ries. 

The  moral  effects  produced  by  this  victory  on  the  vanquish- 
ers and  vanquished,  and  on  the  state  of  public  opinion  through- 
out Europe,  was  immense ;  but  its  immediate  consequences 
were  incredibly  trifling.  Not  one  result  in  a  military  point 
of  view  followed  an  event  which  appeared  almost  decisive  of 
the  war.  Nieuport  was  again  invested  three  days  after  the 
battle ;  but  a  strong  reinforcement  entering  the  place  saved  it 
from  all  danger,  and  Maurice  found  himself  forced  for  want  of 
supplies  to  abandon  the  scene  of  his  greatest  exploit.  He  re- 
turned to  Holland,  welcomed  by  the  acclamations  of  liis  grate- 
ful country,  and  exciting  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  all  who 
envied  his  glory  or  feared  liis  power.  Among  the  sincere  and 
conscientious  republicans  who  saw  danger  to  the  public  lib- 
erty in  the  growing  influence  of  a  successful  soldier,  placed 
at  the  head  of  affairs  and  endeared  to  the  people  by  every 
hereditary  and  personal  claim,  was  Olden  Barneveldt  the  pen- 
sionary ;  and  from  this  period  may  be  traced  the  growth  of 
the  mutual  antipathy  whicli  led  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  most 
virtuous  statesman  of  Holland,  and  the  eternal  disgrace  of  its 
hitherto  heroic  chief. 

The  states  of  the  Catliolic  provinces  assembled  at  Brus- 
sels now  gave  the  archdukes  to  understand  that  nothing  but 
peace  could  satisfy  their  wishes  or  save  the  country  from  ex- 
haustion and  ruin.  Albert  saw  the  reasonableness  of  their 
remonstrances,  and  attempted  to  carry  the  great  object  into 
eflfect.  The  states-general  listened  to  his  proposals.  Com- 
missioners were  appointed  on  both  sides  to  treat  of  terms. 
They  met  at  Bergen-op-Zoom ;  but  their  conferences  were 
broken  up  almost  as  soon  as  commenced.  The  Spanish  depu- 
ties insisted  on  the  submission  of  the  republic  to  its  ancient 
masters.  Such  a  proposal  was  worse  than  insulting :  it  proved 
the  inveterate  insincerity  of  those  with  whom  it  originated, 
and  who  knew  it  could  not  be  entertained  for  a  moment.  Pre- 
parations for  hostilities  were  therefore  commenced  on  both 
sides,  and  the  whole  of  the  winter  was  thus  employed. 

Early  in  the  spring  prince  Maurice  opened  the  campaign 
at  the  head  of  16,000  men,  chiefly  composed  of  English  and 


184  HISTORY    OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  1602. 

French,  who  seemed  throughout  the  contest  to  forget  their 
national  animosities,  and  to  know  no  rivalry  but  that  of  emu- 
lation in  the  cause  of  liberty.  The  town  of  Rhinberg  soon 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  prince.  His  next  attempt  was 
against  Bois-le-duc ;  and  the  siege  of  this  place  was  signalized 
by  an  event  that  flavored  of  the  chivalric  contests  now  going 
out  of  fashion.  A  Norman  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Breaute, 
in  the  service  of  prince  Maurice,  challenged  the  royalist  gar- 
rison to  meet  him  and  twenty  of  his  comrades  in  arms  under 
the  walls  of  the  place.  The  cartel  was  accepted  by  a  Flem- 
ing named  Abramzoom,  but  better  known  by  the  epithet 
Leckerbeetje  (savory  bit,)  who,  with  twenty  more,  met  Breaute 
and  his  friends.  The  combat  was  desperate.  The  Flemish 
champion  was  killed  at  the  first  shock  by  his  Norman  chal- 
lenger :  but  the  latter  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
they  treacherously  and  cruelly  put  him  to  death,  in  violation 
of  the  strict  conditions  of  the  fight.  Prince  Maurice  was 
forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Bois-le-duc,  and  turn  his  attention 
in  another  direction.* 

The  archduke  Albert  had  now  resolved  to  invest  Ostend,  a 
place  of  great  importance  to  the  United  Provinces,  but  little 
worth  to  either  party  in  comparison  with  the  dreadful  waste 
of  treasure  and  human  life  which  was  the  consequence  of  its 
memorable  siege.  Sir  Francis  Vere  commanded  in  the  place 
at  the  period  of  its  final  investment ;  but  governors,  garrisons, 
and  besieging  forces,  were  renewed  and  replaced  with  a 
rapidity  which  gives  one  of  the  most  frightfiil  instances  of 
the  ravages  of  war.  The  siege  of  Ostend  lasted  upwards  of 
three  years.  It  became  a  school  for  the  young  nobility  of  all 
Europe,  who  repaired  to  either  one  or  th(i  other  party  to  learn 
the  principles  and  the  practice  of  attack  and  defence.  Every 
thing  that  the  art  of  strategy  could  devise  was  resorted  to 
on  either  side.  The  slaughter  in  the  various  assaults,  sorties, 
and  bombardments,  was  enormous.  Squadrons  at  sea  gave  a 
double  interest  to  the  land  operations;  and  the  celebrated 
brothers  Frederick  and  Ambrose  Spinola  founded  their  repu- 
tation on  these  opposing  elements.  Frederick  was  killed  in 
one  of  the  naval  combats  with  the  Dutch  galleys,  and  the 
fame  of  reducing  Ostend  was  reserved  for  Ambrose.  This 
afterwards  celebrated  general  had  undertaken  the  command 
at  the  earnest  entreaties  of  the  archduke  and  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  by  the  firmness  and  vigor  of  his  measures  he  re- 
vived the  courage  of  the  worn-out  assailants  of  the  place. 
Redoubled  attacks  and  multiplied  mines  at  length  reduced 

*  D'Ewez. 


1604.       DEATH  OF  aUEEN  ELIZABETH.  185 

the  town  to  a  mere  mass  of  ruin,  and  scarcely  left  its  still 
undaunted  garrison  sufficient  footing  on  which  to  prolong 
their  desperate  defence.  Ostend  at  length  surrendered,  on 
the  22d  of  September,  1604,  and  the  victors  marched  in  over 
its  crumbled  walls  and  shattered  batteries.  Scarcely  a  vestige 
of  the  place  remained  beyond  those  terrible  evidences  of 
destruction.  Its  ditches  filled  up  with  the  rubbish  of  ramparts, 
bastions,  and  redoubts,  left  no  distinct  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  operations  of  its  attack  and  its  defence.  It  re- 
sembled rather  a  vast  sepulchre  than  a  ruined  town,  a  moun- 
tain of  earth  and  rubbish,  without  a  single  house  in  which 
the  wretched  remnant  of  the  inhabitants  could  hide  their 
heads — a  monument  of  desolation  on  which  victory  might 
have  sat  and  wept. 

During  the  progress  of  this  memorable  siege  queen  Eliza- 
beth of  England  had  died,  after  a  long  and,  it  must  be  pro- 
nounced, a  glorious  reign ;  though  the  glory  belongs  rather 
to  the  nation  than  to  the  monarch,  whose  memory  is  marked 
with  indelible  stains  of  private  cruelty,  as  in  the  cases  of 
Essex  and  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  and  of  public  wrongs,  as  in 
that  of  her  whole  system  of  tyranny  in  Ireland.  With  re- 
spect to  the  United  Provinces  she  was  a  harsh  protectress 
and  a  capricious  ally.  She  in  turns  advised  them  to  remain 
faithful  to  the  old  impurities  of  religion  and  to  their  intolera* 
ble  king ;  refused  to  incorporate  them  with  her  own  states ; 
and  then  used  her  best  efforts  for  subjecting  them  to  her 
sway.  She  seemed  to  take  pleasure  in  the  uncertainty  to 
which  she  reduced  them,  by  constant  demands  for  payment 
of  her  loans,  and  threats  of  making  peace  with  Spain.  Thus 
the  states-general  were  not  much  affected  by  the  news  of  her 
death;  and  so  rejoiced  were  they  at  the  accession  of  James  I. 
to  the  throne  of  England,  that  all  the  bells  of  Holland  rang 
out  merry  peals;  bonfires  were  set  blazing  all  over  the 
country;  a  letter  of  congratulation  was  dispatched  to  the 
new  monarch ;  and  it  was  speedily  followed  by  a  solemn  em- 
bassy, composed  of  prince  Frederick  Henry,  the  grand  pen- 
sionary De  Barneveldt,  and  others  of  the  first  dignitaries  of 
the  republic*  These  ambassadors  were  grievously  disap- 
pointed at  the  reception  given  to  them  by  James,  who  treated 
them  as  little  better  than  rebels  to  their  lawful  king.  But 
this  first  disposition  to  contempt  and  insult  was  soon  overcome 
by  the  united  talents  of  Barneveldt  and  the  great  duke  of 
Sully,  who  were  at  the  same  period  ambassadors  from  France 
at  the  English  court.     The  result  of  the  negotiations  was  an 

*  Cerisier,  vol.  iv.  p.  495. 

Q2 


186  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1605. 

agreement  between  those  two  powers  to  take  the  republic 
under  their  protection,  and  use  their  best  efforts  for  obtaining 
the  recognition  of  its  independence  by  Spain.* 

The  states-general  considered  themselves  amply  recom- 
pensed for  the  loss  of  Ostend,  by  the  taking  of  Ecluse,  Rhyn- 
berg,  and  Grave,  all  of  which  had  in  the  interval  surrendered 
to  prince  Maurice ;  but  they  w^ere  seriously  alarmed  on  find- 
ing themselves  abandoned  by  king  James,  who  concluded  a 
separate  peace  with  Philip  III.  of  Spain  in  the  month  of 
August  this  year.f 

This  event  gives  rise  to  a  question  very  important  to  the 
honor  of  James,  and  consequently  to  England  itself,  as  the 
acts  of  the  absolute  monarchs  of  those  days  must  be  con- 
sidered as  those  of  the  nations  which  submitted  to  such  a  form 
of  government.  Historians  of  great  authorityf  have  asserted 
that  it  appeared  that,  by  a  secret  agreement,  the  king  had  ex- 
pressly reserved  the  power  of  sending  assistance  to  Holland. 
Others  deny  the  existence  of  this  secret  article ;  and  lean 
heavily  on  the  reputation  of  James  for  his  conduct  in  the 
transaction.  5  It  must  be  considered  a  very  doubtful  point, 
and  is  to  be  judged  rather  by  subsequent  events  than  by  any 
direct  testimony. 

The  two  monarchs  stipulated  in  the  treaty  that  "  neither 
was  to  give  support  of  any  kind  to  the  revolted  subjects  of 
the  other."  It  is  nevertheless  true  that  James  did  not  with- 
draw his  troops  from  the  service  of  the  states ;  but  he  au- 
thorized the  Spaniards  to  levy  soldiers  in  England.  The 
United  Provinces  were  at  once  afflicted  and  indignant  at  this 
equivocal  conduct.  Their  first  impulse  was  to  deprive  the 
English  of  the  liberty  of  navigating  the  Scheldt.  They  even 
arrested  the  progress  of  several  of  their  merchant-ships.  But 
soon  afler,  gratified  at  finding  that  James  received  their 
deputy  with  the  title  of  ambassador,  they  resolved  to  dissimu- 
late their  resentment. 

Prince  Maurice  and  Spinola  now  took  the  field  with  their 
respective  armies ;  and  a  rapid  series  of  operations  placing 
them  in  direct  contact,  displayed  their  talents  in  the  most 
striking  points  of  view.  The  first  steps  on  the  part  of  the 
prince  were  a  new  invasion  of  Flanders,  and  an  attempt  on 
Antwerp,  which  he  hoped  to  carry  before  the  Spanish  army 
could  arrive  to  its  succor.  But  the  promptitude  and  sagacity 
of  Spinola  defeated  this  plan,  which  Maurice  was  obliged  to 
abandon  after  some  loss ;  while  the  royalist  general  resolved 

*  Hume,  vol.  iv.  p.  7.  t  Meteren. 

X  Hume,  vol.  vi.  p.  28.  Rapiii,  t.  vii.  p.  38.       §  Cerisier,  t.  iv.  pp.  51C,  517. 


1605.  NAVAL    OPERATIONS.  187 

to  signalize  himself  by  some  important  movement,  and,  ere 
his  design  was  suspected,  he  had  penetrated  into  the  province 
of  Overyssel,  and  thus  retorted  his  rival's  favorite  measure 
of  carrying  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country.  Several  towns 
were  rapidly  reduced  ;  but  Maurice  flew  towards  the  threat- 
ened provinces,  and  by  his  active  measures  forced  Spinola 
to  fall  back  on  the  Rhine  and  take  up  a  position  near  Roe- 
roord,*  where  he  was  impetuously  attacked  by  the  Dutch 
army.  But  the  cavalry  having  followed  up  too  slowly  the 
orders  of  Maurice,  his  hope  of  surprising  the  royalists  was 
frustrated ;  and  the  Spanish  forces,  gaining  time  by  this  hesi- 
tation, soon  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day.  The  Dutch 
cavalry  shamefully  took  to  flight,  despite  the  gallant  endea\ors 
of  both  Maurice  and  his  brother  Frederick  Henry ;  and  at 
this  juncture  a  large  reinforcement  of  Spaniards  arrived  un- 
der the  command  of  Velasco.  Maurice  now  brought  forward 
some  companies  of  English  and  French  infantry  under  Hora- 
tio Vere  and  D'Omerville,  also  a  distinguished  officer.  The 
battle  was  again  fiercely  renewed ;  and  the  Spaniards  now 
gave  way,  and  had  been  completely  defeated,  had  not  Spinola 
put  in  practice  an  old  and  generally  successful  stratagem. 
He  caused  almost  all  the  drums  of  his  army  to  beat  in  one 
direction,  so  as  to  give  the  impression  that  a  still  larger  rein- 
forcement was  approaching.  Maurice,  apprehensive  that  the 
former  panic  might  find  a  parallel  in  a  fresh  one,  prudently 
ordered  a  retreat,  which  he  was  able  to  effect  in  good  order, 
in  preference  to  risking  the  total  disorganization  of  his  troops. 
The  loss  on  each  side  was  nearly  the  same ;  but  the  glory  of 
this  hard-fought  day  remained  on  the  side  of  Spinola,  who 
proved  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  the  great  duke  of  Parma, 
and  an  antagonist  with  whom  Maurice  might  contend  with- 
out dishonor.! 

The  naval  transactions  of  this  year  restored  the  balance 
which  Spinola's  successes  had  begun  to  turn  in  favor  of  the 
royalist  cause.  A  squadron  of  ships,  commanded  by  Hautain 
admiral  of  Zealand,  attacked  a  superior  force  of  Spanish  ves- 
sels close  to  Dover,  and  defeated  them  with  considerable 
loss.  But  the  victory  was  sullied  by  an  act  of  great  barbari- 
ty. All  the  soldiers  found  on  board  the  captured  ships  were 
tied  two  and  two,  and  mercilessly  flung  into  the  sea.  Some 
contrived  to  extricate  themselves,  and  gained  the  shore  by 
swimming;  others  were  picked  up  by  the  English  boats, 
whose  crews  witnessed  the  scene  and  hastened  to  their  relief. 
The  generous  British  seamen  could  not  remain  neuter  in 

♦  Grotius,  lib.  xiv.  t  Grotiu?,  Hist.  lib.  xiv. 


188  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1605. 

Buch  a  moment,  nor  repress  their  indignation  against  those 
whom  they  had  hitherto  so  long  considered  as  friends.  The 
Dutch  vessels  pursuing  those  of  Spain  which  fled  into  Dover 
harbor,  were  fired  on  by  the  cannon  of  the  castle  and  forced 
to  give  up  the  chase.  The  English  loudly  complained  that 
the  Dutch  had  on  this  occasion  violated  their  territory ;  and 
this  transaction  laid  the  foundation  of  the  quarrel  which  subse- 
quently broke  out  between  England  and  the  republic,  and 
which  the  jealousies  of  rival  merchants  in  either  state  un- 
ceasingly fomented.  In  this  year  also  the  Dutch  succeeded 
in  capturing  the  chief  of  the  Dunkirk  privateers,  which  had 
so  long  annoyed  their  trade ;  and  they  cruelly  ordered  sixty 
of  the  prisoners  to  be  put  to  death.  But  the  people,  more 
humane  than  the  authorities,  rescued  them  from  the  execu- 
tioners and  set  them  free.* 

But  these  domestic  instances  of  success  and  inhumanity 
were  trifling,  in  comparison  with  the  splendid  train  of  distant 
events,  accompanied  by  a  course  of  wholesale  benevolence 
that  redeemed  the  traits  of  petty  guilt.  The  maritime  enter- 
prises of  Holland,  forced  by  the  imprudent  policy  of  Spain  to 
seek  a  wider  career  than  in  the  narrow  seas  of  Europe,  were 
day  by  day  extended  in  the  Indies.  To  ruin  if  possible  their 
increasing  trade,  Philip  III.  sent  out  the  admiral  Hurtado, 
with  a  fleet  of  eight  galleons  and  thirty-two  galleys.  The 
Dutch  squadron  of  five  vessels,  commanded  by  Wolfert  Her- 
man szoon,  attacked  them  off*  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  his 
temerity  was  crowned  with  great  success.  He  took  two  of 
their  vessels,  and  completely  drove  the  remainder  from  the 
Indian  seas.  He  then  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  natives 
of  the  isle  of  Banda,  by  which  he  promised  to  support  them 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  on  condition  that  they 
were  to  give  his  fellow-countrymen  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  purchasing  the  spices  of  the  island.  This  treaty  was  the 
foundation  of  the  influence  which  the  Dutch  so  soon  succeed- 
ed in  forming  in  the  East  Indies ;  and  they  established  it  by 
a  candid,  mild,  and  tolerant  conduct,  strongly  contrasted  with 
the  pride  and  bigotry  which  had  signalized  every  act  of  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards. 

The  prodigious  success  of  the  Indian  trade  occasioned 
numerous  societies  to  be  formed  all  through  the  republic. 
But  by  their  great  number  they  became  at  length  injurious 
to  each  other.  The  spirit  of  speculation  was  pushed  too  far; 
and  the  merchants,  who  paid  enormous  prices  for  India  goods, 
found  themselves  forced  to  sell  in  Europe  at  a  loss.     Many 

*  Cerisier. 


1606.  PRINCE   MAURICE    AND    SPINOLA.  189 

of  those  societies  were  too  weak,  iii  military  force  as  well  as 
in  capital,  to  resist  the  armed  competition  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  to  support  themselves  in  their  disputes  with  the  native 
princes.  At  length  the  states-general  resolved  to  unite  the 
whole  of  these  scattered  partnerships  into  one  grand  company, 
which  was  soon  organized  on  a  solid  basis,  that  led  ere-long 
to  incredible  wealth  at  home,  and  a  rapid  succession  of  con- 
quests in  the  East.* 


CHAP.  XVL 
1606—1619. 

TO  THE  SYNOD  AT  DORT  AND  THE  EXECUTION  OF  BARNEVELDT. 

The  states-general  now  resolved  to  confine  their  military 
operations  to  a  war  merely  defensive.  Spinola  had,  by  his 
conduct  during  the  late  campaign,  completely  revived  the 
spirits  of  the  Spanish  troops,  and  excited  at  least  the  caution 
of  the  Dutch.  He  now  threatened  the  United  Provinces  with 
invasion  ;  and  he  exerted  his  utmost  efforts  to  raise  the  sup- 
plies necessary  for  the  execution  of  his  plan.  He  not  only 
exhausted  the  resources  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  the  arch- 
duke, but  obtained  money  on  his  private  account  from  all 
those  usurers  who  were  tempted  by  his  confident  anticipa- 
tions of  conquest.  He  soon  equipped  two  armies  of  about 
12,000  men  each.  At  the  head  of  one  of  those  he  took  the 
field ;  the  other,  commanded  by  the  count  of  Bucquoi,  was 
destined  to  join  him  in  the  neighborhood  of  Utrecht ;  and  he 
was  then  resolved  to  push  forward  with  the  whole  united 
force  into  the  very  heart  of  the  republic. 

Prince  Maurice  in  the  mean  time  concentrated  his  army, 
amounting  to  12,000  men,  and  prepared  to  make  head  against 
his  formidable  opponents.  By  a  succession  of  the  most  pru- 
dent manoeuvres  he  contrived  to  keep  Spinola  in  check,  dis- 
concerted all  his  projects,  and  forced  him  to  content  himself 
with  the  capture  of  two  or  three  towns — a  comparatively  in- 
significant conquest.  Desiring  to  wipe  away  the  disgrace 
of  this  discomfiture,  and  to  risk  every  thing  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  grand  design,  Spinola  used  every  method  to 
provoke  the  prince  to  a  battle,  even  though  a  serious  mutiny 
among  his  troops,  and  the  impossibility  of  forming  a  junction 
with  Bucquoi,  had  reduced  his  force  below  that  of  Maurice  ; 

*  Richesse  de  la  Hollande,  t.  i.  p.  161,  &c. 


190  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1607. 

but  the  latter,  to  the  surprise  of  all  who  expected  a  decisive 
blow,  retreated  from  before  the  Italian  general — abandoning 
the  town  of  Groll,  which  immediately  fell  into  Spinola's 
power,  and  giving  rise  to  manifold  conjectures  and  infinite 
discontent  at  conduct  so  little  in  unison  with  his  wonted  en- 
terprise and  skill.  Even  Henry  IV.  acknowledged  it  did  not 
answer  the  expectation  he  had  formed  from  Maurice's  splen- 
did talents  for  war.*  The  fact  seems  to  be,  that  the  prince, 
much  as  he  valued  victory,  dreaded  peace  more ;  and  that  he 
was  resolved  to  avoid  a  decisive  blow,  which,  in  putting  an 
end  to  the  contest,  would  at  the  same  time  have  decreased 
the  individual  influence  in  the  state,  which  his  ambition  now 
urged  him  to  augment  by  every  possible  means. 

The  Dutch  naval  expeditions  this  year  were  not  more  bril- 
liant than  those  on  land.  Admiral  Hautain,  with  twenty 
ships,  was  surprised  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  by  the  Spanish 
fleet.  The  formidable  appearance  of  their  galleons  inspired 
on  this  occasion  a  perfect  panic  among  the  Dutch  sailors. 
They  hoisted  their  sails  and  fled,  with  the  exception  of  one 
ship,  commanded  by  vice-admiral  Klaazoon,  whose  desperate 
conduct  saved  the  national  honor.  Having  held  out  until  his 
vessel  was  quite  unmanageable,  and  almost  his  whole  crew 
killed  or  wounded,  he  prevailed  on  the  rest  to  agree  to  the 
resolution  he  had  formed,  knelt  down  on  the  deck,  and  putting 
up  a  brief  prayer  for  pardon  for  the  act,  thrust  a  light  into 
the  powder-magazine,  and  was  instantly  blown  up  with  his 
companions.  Only  two  men  were  snatched  from  the  sea  by 
the  Spaniards ;  and  even  these,  dreadfully  burnt  and  man- 
gled, died  in  the  utterance  of  curses  on  the  enemy. f 

This  disastrous  occurrence  was  soon,  however,  forgotten 
in  the  rejoicings  for  a  brilliant  victory  gained  the  following 
year  by  Heemskirk,  so  celebrated  for  his  voyage  to  Nova 
Zembla,  and  by  his  conduct  in  the  East.  He  set  sail  from 
the  ports  of  Holland  in  the  month  of  March,  determined  to 
signalize  himself  by  some  great  exploit,  now  necessary  to  re- 
deem the  disgrace  which  had  begun  to  sully  the  reputation 
of  the  Dutch  navy.  He  soon  got  intelligence  that  the  Spanish 
fleet  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Gibraltar,  and  he  speedily 
prepared  to  offer  them  battle.  Before  the  combat  began  he 
held  a  council  of  war,  and  addressed  the  officers  in  an  ener- 
getic speech,  in  which  he  displayed  the  imperative  call  on 
their  valor  to  conquer  or  die  in  the  approaching  conflict.  He 
led  on  to  the  action  in  his  own  ship ;  and,  to  the  astonishment 
of  both  fleets,  he  bore  right  down  against  the  enormous  gal- 

*  Sully's  Mem.  t.  iii.  ^  t  Cerisier. 


1607.         NEGOTIATIONS  FOR  PEACE.  191 

leon  in  which  the  flag  of  the  Spanish  admiral  in  chief  was 
hoisted.  D'Avila  could  scarcely  believe  the  evidence  of  his 
eyes  at  this  audacity :  he  at  first  burst  into  laughter  at  the 
notion ;  but  as  Heemskirk  approached,  he  cut  his  cables  and 
attempted  to  escape  under  the  shelter  of  the  town.  The 
heroic  Dutchman  pursued  him  through  the  whole  of  the 
Spanish  fleet,  and  soon  forced  him  to  action.  At  the  second 
broadside  Heemskirk  had  his  left  leg  carried  ofl*  by  a  cannon- 
ball,  and  he  almost  instantly  died,  exhorting  his  crew  to  seek 
for  consolation  in  the  defeat  of  the  enemy.  Verhoef,  the 
captain  of  the  ship,  concealed  the  admiral's  death ;  and  the 
whole  fleet  continued  the  action  with  a  valor  worthy  the 
spirit  in  which  it  was  commenced.  The  victory  was  soon 
decided :  four  of  the  Spanish  galleons  were  sunk  or  burned, 
the  remainder  fled ;  and  the  citizens  of  Cadiz  trembled  with 
the  apprehension  of  sack  and  pillage.  But  the  death  of 
Heemskirk,  when  made  known  to  the  surviving  victors, 
seemed  completely  to  paralyze  them  :  they  attempted  nothing 
further ;  but  sailing  back  to  Holland  with  the  body  of  their 
lamented  chief,  thus  paid  a  greater  tribute  to  his  importance 
than  was  to  be  found  in  the  mausoleum  erected  to  his  memory 
in  the  city  of  Amsterdam.* 

The  news  of  this  battle  reaching  Brussels  before  it  was 
known  in  Holland,  contributed  not  a  little  to  quicken  the 
anxiety  of  the  archdukes  for  peace.  The  king  of  Spain, 
worn  out  by  the  war  which  drained  his  treasury,  had  for 
some  time  ardently  desired  it.  The  Portuguese  made  loud 
complaints  of  the  ruin  that  threatened  their  trade  and  their 
East  Indian  colonies.f  The  Spanish  ministers  were  fatigued 
with  the  apparently  interminable  contest  which  bafiled  all 
their  calculations.^  Spinola,  even  in  the  midst  of  his  bril- 
liant career,  found  himself  so  overwhelmed  with  debts,  and 
so  oppressed  by  the  reproaches  of  the  numerous  creditors 
who  were  ruined  by  his  default  of  payment,  that  he  joined  in 
the  general  demand  for  repose.  5  In  the  month  of  May,  1607, 
proposals  were  made  by  the  archdukes,  in  compliance  with 
the  general  desire;  and  their  two  plenipotentiaries,  Van 
Wittenhorst  and  Gevaerts,  repaired  to  the  Hague. 

Public  opinion  in  the  United  States  was  divided  on  this 
important  question.  An  instinctive  hatred  against  the  Span- 
iards, and  long  habits  of  warfare,  influenced  the  great  mass 
of  the  people  to  consider  any  overture  for  peace  as  some  wily 
artifice  aimed  at  their  religion  and  liberty.  War  seemed  to 
open  inexhaustible  sources  of  wealth ;  while  peace  seemed 

♦  Vandervynct.  t  Grotius.  X  Bentivoglio.  §  Cerisier. 


192  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1608Sj 

tx)  threaten  the  extinction  of  the  courage,  which  was  now  aat 
much  a  habit  as  war  appeared  to  be  a  want.  This  reasoning! 
was  particularly  convincing  to  prince  Maurice,  whose  fame,^ 
with  a  large  portion  of  his  authority  and  revenues,  depended^ 
on  the  continuance  of  hostilities :  it  was  also  strongly  relish*^^ 
ed  and  supported  in  Zealand  generally,  and  in  the  chief  towns^ 
which  dreaded  the  rivalry  of  Antwerp.  But  those  who  bore 
the  burden  of  the  war  saw  the  subject  under  a  different  as- 
pect :*  they  feared  that  the  present  state  of  things  would  lead 
to  their  conquest  by  the  enemy,  or  to  the  ruin  of  their  liberty 
by  the  growing  power  of  Maurice.  They  hoped  that  peace 
would  consolidate  the  republic  and  cause  the  reduction  of  the 
debt,  which  now  amounted  to  26,000,000  florins.  At  the 
head  of  the  party  who  so  reasoned  was  De  Barneveldt ;  and 
his  name  is  a  guarantee  with  posterity  for  the  wisdom  of  the 
opinion. 

•  To  allow  the  violent  opposition  to  subside,  and  to  prevent 
any  explosion  of  party  feuds,  the  prudent  Barneveldt  sug- 
gested a  mere  suspension  of  arms,  during  which  the  perma- 
nent interests  of  both  states  might  be  calmly  discussed :  he 
even  undertook  to  obtain  Maurice's  consent  to  the  armistice. 
The  prince  listened  to  his  arguments,  and  was  apparently 
convinced  by  them.  He,  at  any  rate,  sanctioned  the  propo- 
sal ;  but  he  afterwards  complained  that  Barneveldt  had  de- 
ceived him,  in  representing  the  negotiation  as  a  feint  for  the 
purpose  of  persuading  the  kings  of  France  and  England  to 
give  greater  aid  to  the  republic. f  It  is  more  than  likely  that 
Maurice  reckoned  on  the  improbability  of  Spain's  consentmg 
to  the  terms  of  the  proposed  treaty ;  and,  on  that  chance, 
withdrew  an  opposition  which  could  scarcely  be  ascribed  to 
any  but  motives  of  personal  ambition.  It  is,  however,  certain 
that  his  discontent  at  this  transaction,  either  with  himself  or 
Barneveldt,  laid  the  foundation  of  that  bitter  enmity  which 
proved  fatal  to  the  life  of  the  latter,  and  covered  his  own 
name,  otherwise  glorious,  with  undying  reproach. 

The  United  Provinces  positively  refused  to  admit  even  the 
commencement  of  a  negotiation  without  the  absolute  recog- 
nition of  their  independence  by  the  archdukes.  A  new  am- 
bassador was  accordingly  chosen  on  the  part  of  these  sove- 
reigns, and  empowered  to  concede  this  important  admission. 
This  person  attracted  considerable  attention,  from  his  well- 
known  qualities  as  an  able  diplomatist.  He  was  a  monk  of 
the  order  of  St.  Francis,  named  John  de  Neyen,  a  native  of 
Antwerp,  and  a  person  as  well  versed  in  court  intrigue  as  in 

•  Bentivoglio.  t  Cerisier. 


1608.  ASSEMBLY    OF    AMBASSADORS.  193 

the  studies  of  the  cloister.  He,  in  the  first  instance,  repaired 
secretly  to  the  Hague ;  and  had  several  private  interviews 
with  prince  Maurice  and  Barne veldt,  before  he  was  regularly- 
introduced  to  the  states-general  in  his  official  character.  Two 
different  journeys  were  undertaken  by  this  agent  between  the 
Hague  and  Brussels,  before  he  could  succeed  in  obtaining  a 
perfect  understanding  as  to  the  specific  views  of  the  arch- 
dukes. The  suspicions  of  the  states-general  seem  fully  jus- 
tified by  the  dubious  tone  of  the  various  communications, 
which  avoided  the  direct  admission  of  the  required  prelimi- 
nary as  to  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces.  It  was 
at  length  concluded  in  explicit  terms;  and  a  suspension  of 
arms  for  eight  months  was  the  immediate  consequence. 

But  the  negotiation  for  peace  was  on  the  point  of  being 
completely  broken,  in  consequence  of  the  conduct  of  Neyen, 
who  justified  every  doubt  of  his  sincerity  by  an  attempt  to 
corrupt  Aarsens  the  greffier  of  the  states-general,  or  at  least 
to  influence  his  conduct  in  the  progress  of  the  treaty.  Neyen 
presented  him,  in  the  name  of  the  archdukes,,  and  as  a  token 
of  his  esteem,  with  a  diamond  of  great  value  and  a  bond  for 
50,000  crowns.  Aarsens  accepted  these  presents  with  the 
approbation  of  prince  Maurice,  to  whom  he  had  confided  the 
circumstance,  and  who  was  no  doubt  delighted  at  what  prom- 
ised a  rupture  to  the  negotiations.  Verreiken,  a  counsellor 
of  state,  who  assisted  Neyen  in  his  diplomatic  labors,  was 
formally  summoned  before  the  assembled  states-general,  and 
there  Barneveldt  handed  to  him  th?  diamond  and  the  bond ; 
and  at  the  same  time  read  him  a  lecture  of  true  republican  se- 
verity on  the  subject.  Verreiken  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
violent  attack:  he  denied  the  authority  of  Neyen  for  the 
measure  he  had  taken ;  and  remarked,  "  that  it  was  not  sur- 
prising that  monks,  naturally  interested  and  avaricious,  judged 
others  by  themselves."*  This  repudiation  of  Neyen's  suspi- 
cious conduct,  seems  to  have  satisfied  the  stern  resentment 
of  Barneveldt,  and  the  party  which  so  earnestly  labored  for 
peace.  In  spite  of  all  the  opposition  of  Maurice  and  his  par- 
tisans, the  negotiation  went  on. 

In  the  month  of  January,  1608,  the  various  ambassadors 
were  assembled  at  the  Hague.  Spinola  was  the  chief  of  the 
plenipotentaries  appointed  by  the  king  of  Spain ;  and  Jean- 
nin,  president  of  the  parliament  of  Dijon,  a  man  of  rare  en- 
dowments, represented  France.  Prince  Maurice,  accompa- 
nied by  his  brother  Frederick  Henry,  the  various  counts  of 
Nassau  his  cousins,  and  a  numerous  escort,  advanced  some 

*  Jeannin,  vol.  i.  pp.  302.  343. 

R 


194  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1608. 

distance  to  meet  Spinola,  conveyed  him  to  the  Hague  in  his 
own  carriage,  and  lavished  on  him  all  the  attentions  recipro- 
cally due  between  two  such  renowned  captains  during*  the 
suspension  of  their  rivalry.  The  president  Richardst  was, 
with  Neyen  and  Verreiken,  ambassador  from  the  archdukes ; 
but  Barneveldt*  and  Jeannin  appear  to  have  played  the  chief 
parts  in  the  important  transaction  which  now  filled  all  Eu- 
rope with  anxiety.  Every  state  was  more  or  less  concerned 
in  the  result ;  and  the  three  great  monarchies  of  England, 
France,  and  Spain,  had  all  a  vital  interest  at  stake.  The 
conferences  were  therefore  frequent ;  and  the  debates  assum- 
ed a  great  variety  of  aspects,  which  long  kept  the  civilized 
world  in  suspense. 

King  James  was  extremely  jealous  of  the  more  prominent 
part  taken  by  the  French  ambassadors,  and  of  the  subaltern 
consideration  held  by  his  own  envoys,  Winwood  and  Spen- 
cer, in  consequence  of  the  disfavor  in  which  he  himself  was 
held  by  the  Dutch  people.  It  appears  evident  that,  whether 
deservedly  or  the  contrary,  England  was  at  this  period  un- 
popular in  the  United  Provinces,  while  France  was  looked  up 
to  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  This  is  not  surprising,  when 
we  compare  the  characters  of  Henry  IV.  and  James  I.,  bear- 
ing in  mind  how  much  of  national  reputation  at  the  time  de- 
pended on  the  personal  conduct  of  kings ;  and  how  political 
situations  influence,  if  they  do  not  create,  the  virtues  and 
vices  of  a  people.  Independent  of  the  suspicions  of  his  being 
altogether  unfavorable  to  the  declaration  required  by  the 
United  Provinces  from  Spain,  to  which  James's  conduct  had 
given  rise,  he  had  established  some  exactions  which  greatly 
embarrassed  their  fishing  expeditions  on  the  coasts  of  Eng- 
land. 

The  main  points  for  discussion,  and  on  which  depended  the 
decision  for  peace  or  war,  were  those  which  concerned  reli- 
gion ;  and  the  demand,  on  the  part  of  Spain,  that  the  United 
Provinces  should  renounce  all  claims  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Indian  seas.f  Philip  required  for  the  Catholics  of  the  United 
Provinces  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion ;  this  was  op- 
posed by  the  states-general :  and  the  archduke  Albert,  seeing 
the  impossibility  of  carrying  that  point,  dispatched  his  con- 
fessor Fra  Inigo  de  Briznella,  to  Spain.  This  Dominican  was 
furnished  with  the  written  opinion  of  several  theologians,  that 
the  king  might  conscientiously  slur  over  the  article  of  reli- 
gion; and  he  was  the  more  successful  with  Philip,  as  the 
duke  of  Lerma,  his  prime  minister,  was  resolved  to  accom- 

♦  Vandervynct.  t  Idem. 


1608.  CONGRESS    AT   THE    HAGUE.  195 

plish  the  peace  at  any  price.*  The  conferences  at  the  Hague 
were  therefore  not  interrupted  on  this  question ;  but  they 
went  on  slowly,  months  being  consumed  in  discussions  on 
articles  of  trifling  importance.  They  were,  however,  re- 
sumed in  the  month  of  August  with  greater  vigor.  It  was 
announced  that  the  king  of  Spain  abandoned  the  question 
respecting  religion ;  but  that  it  was  in  the  certainty  that  his 
moderation  would  be  recompensed  by  ample  concessions  on 
that  of  the  Indian  trade,  on  which  he  was  inexorable.  This 
article  became  the  rock  on  which  the  whole  negotiation 
eventually  split.  The  court  of  Spain,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  states-general  on  the  other,  inflexibly  maintained  their 
opposing  claims.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  ambassadors  turned 
and  twisted  the  subject  with  all  the  subtleties  of  diplomacy. 
Every  possible  expedient  was  used  to  shake  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Dutch.  But  the  influence  of  the  East  India  com- 
pany, the  islands  of  Zealand,  and  the  city  of  Amsterdam, 
prevailed  over  all.  Reports  of  the  avowal  on  the  part  of  the 
king  of  Spain,  that  he  would  never  renounce  his  title  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  Provinces,  unless  they  abandoned 
the  Indian  navigation,  and  granted  the  free  exercise  of  reli- 
gion, threw  the  whole  diplomatic  corps  into  confusion ;  and 
on  the  25th  of  August,  the  states-general  announced  to  the 
marquis  of  Spinola  and  the  other  ambassadors,  that  the  con- 
gress was  dissolved,  and  that  all  hopes  of  peace  were  aban- 
doned, f 

Nothing  seemed  now  likely  to  prevent  the  immediate  re- 
newal of  hostilities,  when  the  ambassadors  of  France  and 
England  proposed  the  mediation  of  their  respective  masters 
for  the  conclusion  of  a  truce  for  several  years.  The  king  of 
Spain  and  the  archdukes  were  well  satisfied  to  obtain  even 
this  temporary  cessation  of  the  war ;  but  prince  Maurice  and 
a  portion  of  the  Provinces  strenuously  opposed  the  proposi- 
tion. The  French  and  English  ambassadors,  however,  in 
concert  with  Barneveldt,  who  steadily  maintained  his  influ- 
ence, labored  incessantly  to  overcome  those  difficulties ;  and 
finally  succeeded  in  overpowering  all  opposition  to'  the  truce. 
A  new  congress  was  agreed  on,  to  assemble  at  Antwerp  for 
the  consideration  of  the  conditions;  and  the  states-general 
agreed  to  remove  from  the  Hague  to  Bergen-op-Zoom,  to  be 
more  within  reach,  and  ready  to  co-operate  in  the  negotia- 
tion. 

But,  before  matters  assumed  this  favorable  turn,  discus- 
sions and  disputes  had  intervened  on  several  occasions  to 

♦  Vandervynci.  |  Grotius,  lib.  xvii.  p.  548. 


196  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1609. 

render  fruitless  every  effort  of  those  who  so  incessantly  la- 
bored for  the  great  causes  of  humanity  and  the  general  good. 
On  one  occasion,  Barneveldt,  disgusted  with  the  opposition 
of  prince  Maurice  and  his  partisans,  had  actually  resigned 
his  employments ;  but  brought  back  by  the  solicitations  of  the 
states-general,  and  reconciled  to  Maurice  by  the  intervention 
of  Jeannin,  the  negotiations  for  the  truce  were  resumed ; 
and,  under  the  auspices  of  the  ambassadors,  they  were  hap- 
pily terminated.  After  two  years'  delay,  this  long  wished  for 
truce  was  concluded,  and  signed  on  the  9th  of  April,  1609,  to 
continue  for  the  space  of  twelve  years.* 

This  celebrated  treaty  contained  thirty-two  articles ;  and 
its  fulfilment  on  either  side  was  guarantied  by  the  kings  of 
France  and  England.  .  Notwithstanding  the  time  taken  up  in 
previous  discussions,  the  treaty  is  one  of  the  most  vague  and 
unspecific  state  papers  that  exist.  The  archdukes,  in  their 
own  names  and  in  that  of  the  king  of  Spain,  declared  the  Uni- 
ted Provinces  to  be  free  and  independent  states,  on  which 
they  renounced  all  claim  whatever.  By  the  third  article 
each  party  was  to  hold  respectively  the  places  which  they 
possessed  at  the  commencement  of  the  armistice.  The  fourth 
and  fifth  articles  grant  to  the  republic,  but  in  a  phraseology 
obscure  and  even  doubtful,  the  right  of  navigation  and  free 
trade  to  the  Indies.  The  eighth  contains  all  that  regards  the 
exercise  of  religion ;  and  the  remaining  clauses  are  wholly 
relative  to  points  of  internal  trade,  custom-house  regulations, 
and  matters  of  private  interest.f 

Ephemeral  and  temporary  as  this  peace  appeared,  it  was 
received  with  almost  universal  demonstrations  of  joy  by  the 
population  of  the  Netherlands  in  their  two  grand  divisions. 
Every  one  seemed  to  turn  towards  the  enjoyment  of  tranquil- 
lity with  the  animated  composure  of  tired  laborers  looking 
forward  to  a  day  of  rest  and  sunshine.  This  truce  brought  a 
calm  of  comparative  happiness  upon  the  country,  which  an 
almost  unremitting  tempest  had  desolated  for  nearly  half  a 
century ;  and,  after  so  long  a  series  of  calamity,  all  the  na- 
tional advantages  of  social  life  seemed  about  to  settle  on  the 
land.  The  attitude  which  the  United  Provinces  assumed  at 
this  period  was  indeed  a  proud  one.  They  were  not  now 
compelled  to  look  abroad  and  solicit  other  states  to  become 
their  masters.  They  had  forced  their  old  tyrants  to  acknow- 
ledge their  independence ;  to  come  and  ask  for  peace  on  their 
own  ground ;  and  to  treat  with  them  on  terms  of  no  doubtful 
equality.  They  had  already  become  so  flourishing,  so  powerful, 

*  Jeannin.    Grotius.    Bentivoglio.    Vandervynct.         f  Vandervynct. 


1610.  DISPUTED    SUCCESSION.  197 

and  so  envied,  that  they  who  had  so  lately  excited  but  com- 
passion from  the  neighboring  states  were  now  regarded  with 
such  jealousy  as  rivals,  unequivocally  equal,  may  justly  in- 
spire in  each  other. 

The  ten  southern  provinces,  now  confirmed  under  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  house  of  Austria,  and  from  this  period  generally 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Belgium,  immediately  began, 
like  the  northern  division  of  the  country,  to  labor  for  the  great 
object  of  repairing  the  dreadful  sufferings  caused  by  their  long 
and  cruel  war.  Their  success  was  considerable.  Albert  and 
Isabella,  their  sovereigns,  joined  to  considerable  probity  of 
character  and  talents  for  government,  a  fund  of  humanity 
which  led  them  to  unceasing  acts  of  benevolence.  The  whole 
of  their  dominions  quickly  began  to  recover  from  the  ravages 
of  war.  Agriculture  and  the  minor  operations  of  trade  re- 
sumed all  their  wonted  activity.  But  the  manufactures  of 
Flanders  were  no  more ;  and  the  grander  exercise  of  com- 
merce seemed  finally  removed  to  Amsterdam  and  the  other 
chief  towns  of  Holland.* 

This  tranquil  course  of  prosperity  in  the  Belgian  provinces 
was  only  once  interrupted  during  the  whole  continuance  of 
the  twelve  years'  truce,  and  that  was  in  the  year  following 
its  commencement.  The  death  of  the  duke  of  Cleves  and 
Juliers,  in  this  year,  gave  rise  to  serious  disputes  for  the  suc- 
cession to  his  states,  which  was  claimed  by  several  of  the 
princes  of  Germany.  The  elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
duke  of  Neubourg  were  seconded  both  by  France  and  the 
United  Provinces;  and  a  joint  army  of  both  nations,  com- 
manded by  prince  Maurice  and  the  marshal  de  la  Ch^tre,  was 
marched  into  the  county  of  Cleves. f  After  taking  possession 
of  the  town  of  Juliers,  the  allies  retired,  leaving  the  two 
princes  above  mentioned  in  a  partnership  possession  of  the 
disputed  states.  But  this  joint  sovereignty  did  not  satisfy  the 
ambition  of  either,  and  serious  divisions  arose  between  them, 
each  endeavoring  to  strengthen  himself  by  foreign  alliances. 
The  archdukes  Albert  and  Isabella  were  drawn  into  the  quar- 
rel ;  and  they  dispatched  Spinola  at  the  head  of  20,000  men 
to  support  the  duke  of  Neubourg,  whose  pretensions  they 
countenanced.  Prince  Maurice,  with  a  Dutch  army,  ad- 
vanced on  the  other  hand  to  uphold  the  claims  of  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg.  Both  generals  took  possession  of  several 
towns ;  and  this  double  expedition  offered  the  singular  specta- 
cle of  two  opposing  armies,  acting  in  different  interests, 
making  conquests,   and  dividing  an   important  inheritance, 

*  Vandervynct.  |  Meteren. 

R2 


198  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1610. 

without  the  occurrence  of  one  act  of  hostility  to  each  other.* 
But  the  interference  of  the  court  of  Madrid  had  nearly  been 
the  cause  of  a  new  rupture.  The  greatest  alarm  was  excited 
in  the  Belgic  provinces ;  and  nothing  but  the  prudence  of  the 
archdukes  and  the  forbearance  of  the  states-general  could 
have  succeeded  in  averting  the  threatened  evil. 

With  the  exception  of  this  bloodless  mimicry  of  war,  the 
United  Provinces  presented  for  the  space  of  twelve  years  a 
long-continued  picture  of  peace,  as  the  term  is  generally  re- 
ceived; but  a  peace  so  disfigured  by  intestine  troubles,  and 
so  stained  by  actions  of  despotic  cruelty,  that  the  period  which 
should  have  been  that  of  its  greatest  happiness  becomes  but 
an  example  of  its  worst  disgrace. 

The  assassination  of  Henry  IV.,  in  the  year  1609,  was  a 
new  instance  of  the  bigoted  atrocity  which  reigned  paramount 
in  Europe  at  the  time ;  and  whilst  robbing  France  of  one  of 
its  best  monarchs,  it  deprived  the  United  Provinces  of  their 
truest  and  most  powerful  friend.  Henry  has,  from  his  own 
days  to  the  present,  found  a  ready  eulogy  in  all  who  value 
kings  in  proportion  as  they  are  distinguished  by  heroism, 
without  ceasing  to  evince  the  feelings  of  humanity.  Henry 
seems  to  have  gone  as  far  as  man  can  go,  to  combine  wisdom, 
dignity,  and  courage,  wdth  all  those  endearing  qualities  of 
private  life  w^hich  alone  give  men  a  prominent  hold  upon  the 
sympathies  of  their  kind.  We  acknowledge  his  errors,  his 
faults,  his  follies,  only  to  love  him  the  better.  We  admire 
his  valor  and  generosity,  without  being  shocked  by  cruelty  or 
disgusted  by  profusion.  We  look  on  his  greatness  without 
envy ;  and  in  tracing  his  whole  career  we  seem  to  walk  hand 
in  hand  beside  a  dear  companion,  rather  than  to  follow  the 
footsteps  of  a  mighty  monarch. 

But  the  death  of  this  powerful  supporter  of  their  efforts  for 
freedom,  and  the  chief  guarantee  for  its  continuance,  was  a 
trifling  calamity  to  the  United  Provinces,  in  comparison  with 
the  rapid  fall  from  the  true  point  of  glory  so  painfully  exhib- 
ited in  the  conduct  of  their  own  domestic  champion.  It  had 
been  well  for  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  that  the  last  shot 
fired  by  the  defeated  Spaniards  in  the  battle  of  Nieuport  had 
struck  him  dead  in  the  moment  of  his  greatest  victory,  and 
on  the  summit  of  his  fame.  From  that  celebrated  day  he  had 
performed  no  deed  of  war  that  could  raise  his  reputation  as  a 
soldier,  and  all  his  acts  as  stadtholder  were  calculated  to  sink' 
him  below  the  level  of  civil  virtue  and  just  government.  His 
two  campaigns  against  Spinola  had  redounded  more  to  the 

*  Relazione  del  Card.  Bentivoglio. 


1610.  RELIGIOUS    DISSENSIONS.  199 

credit  of  his  rival  than  to  his  own ;  and  his  whole  conduct 
during  the  negotiation  for  the  truce  too  plainly  betrayed  the 
unworthy  nature  of  his  ambition,  founded  on  despotic  princi- 
ples. It  was  his  misfortune  to  have  been  completely  thrown 
out  of  the  career  for  which  he  had  been  designed  by  nature 
and  education.  War  was  liis  element.  By  his  genius,  he 
improved  it  as  a  science :  by  his  valor,  he  was  one  of  those 
wiio  raised  it  from  the  degradation  of  a  trade  to  the  dignity 
of  a  passion.  But  when  removed  from  the  camp  to  the  coun- 
cil-room, he  became  all  at  once  a  common  man.  His  frank- 
ness degenerated  into  roughness ;  his  decision  into  despotism ; 
his  courage  into  cruelty.  He  gave  a  new  proof  of  the  melan- 
choly fact,  that  circumstances  may  transform  the  most  appa- 
rent qualities  of  virtue  into  those  opposite  vices  between 
which  human  wisdom  is  baffled  when  it  attempts  to  draw  a 
decided  and  invariable  line. 

Opposed  to  Maurice  in  almost  every  one  of  his  acts  was, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  Barneveldt,  one  of  the  truest  pa- 
triots of  any  time  or  country ;  and,  with  the  exception  of 
William  the  great  prince  of  Orange,  the  most  eminent  citi- 
zen to  whom  the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands  have  given  cele- 
brity. A  hundred  pens  have  labored  to  do  honor  to  this  truly 
virtuous  man.*  His  greatness  has  found  a  record  in  every 
act  of  his  life ;  and  his  death,  like  that  of  William,  though 
differently  accomplished,  was  equally  a  martyrdom  for  the 
liberties  of  his  country.  We  cannot  enter  minutely  into  the 
train  of  circumstances  which  for  several  years  brought  Mau- 
rice and  Barneveldt  into  perpetual  concussion  with  each  other. 
Long  after  the  completion  of  the  truce,  which  the  latter  so 
mainly  aided  in  accomplishing,  every  minor  point  in  the 
domestic  affairs  of  the  republic  seemed  merged  in  the  conflict 
between  the  stadtholder  and  the  pensionary.  Without  at- 
tempting to  specify  these,  we  may  say  generally,  that  almost 
every  one  redounded  to  the  disgrace  of  the  prince  and  the 
honor  of  the  patriot.  But  the  main  question  of  agitation  was 
the  fierce  dispute  which  soon  broke  out  between  two  profes- 
sors of  theology  of  the  university  of  Leyden,  Francis  Gomar 
and  James  Arminius.  We  do  not  regret  on  this  occasion  that 
our  confined  limits  spare  us  the  task  of  recording  in  detail 
controversies  on  points  of  speculative  doctrine  far  -beyond  the 
reach  of  the  human  understanding,  and  therefore  presumptu- 
ous, and  the  decision  of  which  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  vital 
importance  by  those  who  justly  estimate  the  grand  principles 
of  Christianity.    The  whole  strength  of  the  intellects  which 

*  Aubery,  Mem.   Cerisier,  &c. 


200  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1612. 

had  long  been  engaged  in  the  conflict  for  national  and  reli- 
gious liberty,  was  now  directed  to  metaphysical  theology,  and 
wasted  upon  interminable  disputes  about  predestination  and 
grace.  Barneveldt  enrolled  himself  among  the  partisans  of 
Arminius ;  Maurice  became  a  Gomarist. 

It  was,  however,  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at,  that  a  country 
so  recently  delivered  from  slavery  both  in  church  and  state 
should  run  into  wild  excesses  of  intolerance,  before  sectarian 
principles  were  thoroughly  understood  and  definitively  fixed. 
Persecutions  of  various  kinds  were  indulged  in  against  Papists, 
Anabaptists,  Socinians,  and  all  the  shades  of  doctrine  into 
which  Christianity  had  split.  Every  minister  who,  in  the 
milder  spirit  of  Lutheranism,  strove  to  moderate  the  rage  of 
Calvinistic  enthusiasm,  was  openly  denounced  by  its  par- 
tisans ;  and  one,  named  Gaspard  Koolhaas,  was  actually  ex- 
communicated by  a  synod,  and  denounced  in  plain  terms  to 
the  devil.*  Arminius  had  been  appointed  professor  at  Leyden 
in  1603,  for  the  mildness  of  his  doctrines,  which  were  joined 
to  most  affable  manners,  a  happy  temper,  and  a  purity  of  con- 
duct which  no  calumny  could  successfully  traduce.f 

His  colleague  Gomar,  a  native  of  Bruges,  learned,  violent, 
and  rigid  in  sectarian  points,  soon  became  jealous  of  the  more 
popular  professor's  influence.  A  furious  attack  on  the  latter 
was  answered  by  recrimination ;  and  the  whole  battery  of 
theological  authorities  was  reciprocally  discharged  by  one  or 
other  of  the  disputants.  The  states-general  interfered  be- 
tween them:  they  were  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
council  of  state ;  and  grave  politicians  listened  for  hours  to 
the  dispute.  Arminhis  obtained  the  advantage,  by  the  ap- 
parent reasonableness  of  his  creed,  and  the  gentleness  and 
moderation  of  his  conduct.  He  was  meek,  while  Gomar  was 
furious ;  and  many  of  the  listeners  declared  that  they  would 
rather  die  with  the  charity  of  the  former  than  in  the  faith  of  the 
latter.  A  second  hearing  was  allowed  them  before  the  states 
of  Holland.  Again  Arminius  took  the  lead  ;  and  the  contro- 
versy went  on  unceasingly,  till  this  amiable  man,  worn  out 
by  his  exertions  and  the  presentiment  of  the  evil  which  these 
disputes  w^ere  engendering  for  his  country,  expired  in  his 
49th  year,  piously  persisting  in  his  opinions.J 

The  Gomarists  now  loudly  called  for  a  national  synod,  to 
regulate  the  points  of  faith.  The  Arminians  remonstrated  on 
various  grounds,  and  thus  acquired  the  name  of  Remonstrants, 
by  which  they  were  soon  generally  distinguished.  The  most 
deplorable  contests  ensued.    Serious  riots  occurred  in  several 

*  Brandt.  Hist,  du  Reform.  f  Bayle,  art.  Arminius. 

I  Bert.  Orat.  funob. 


1616.  ARMINIANS    AND    GOMARISTS.  201 

of  the  towns  of  Holland ;  and  James  I.  of  England  could  not 
resist  the  temptation  of  entering  the  polemical  lists,  as  a 
champion  of  orthodoxy  and  a  decided  Gomarist.  His  hostility 
was  chiefly  directed  against  Vorstius,  the  successor  and  dis- 
ciple of  Arminius.  He  pretty  strongly  recommended  to  the 
states-general  to  have  him  bui'ned  for  heresy.*  His  inveterate 
intolerance  knew  no  bounds;  and  it  completed  the  melan- 
choly picture  of  absurdity  which  the  w^hole  affair  presents  to 
reasonable  minds. f 

In  this  dispute,  which  occupied  and  agitated  all,  it  was  im- 
possible that  Barneveldt  should  not  choose  the  congenial 
temperance  and  toleration  of  Arminius.  Maurice,  with  pro- 
bably no  distinct  conviction,  or  much  interest  in  the  abstract 
difl^erences  on  either  side,  joined  the  Gomarists.|  His  motives 
were  purely  temporal ;  for  the  party  he  espoused  was  now 
decidedly  as  much  political  as  religious.  King  James  re- 
warded him  by  conferring  on  him  the  riband  of  the  order  of 
the  Garter,  vacant  by  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  5 
The  ceremony  of  investment  was  performed  with  great  pomp 
by  the  English  ambassador  at  the  Hague;  and  James  and 
Maurice  entered  from  that  time  into  a  closer  and  more  unin- 
terrupted correspondence  than  before.  || 

During  the  long  continuance  of  the  theological  disputes, 
the  United  Provinces  had  nevertheless  made  rapid  strides 
towards  commercial  greatness ;  and  the  year  1616  witnessed 
the  completion  of  an  afluir  which  was  considered  the  consoli- 
dation of  their  independence.  This  important  matter  was  the 
recovery  of  the  towns  of  Brille  and  Flessingue,  and  the  fort 
of  Rammekins,  which  had  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
English  as  security  for  the  loan  granted  to  the  republic  by 
queen  Elizabeth.  The  whole  merit  of  the  transaction  was 
due  to  the  perseverance  and  address  of  Barneveldt  acting  on 
the  weakness  and  the  embarrassments  of  king  James.  Reli- 
gious contention  did  not  so  fully  occupy  Barneveldt,  but  that 
he  kept  a  constant  eye  on  political  concerns.  He  was  well 
informed  on  all  that  passed  in  the  English  court :  he  knew 
the  wants  of  James,  and  was  aware  of  his  efforts  to  bring 
about  the  marriage  of  his  son  with  the  infanta  of  Spain.  The 
danger  of  such  an  alliance  was  evident  to  the  penetrating 
Barneveldt,  who  saw  in  perspective  the  probability  of  the 
wily  Spaniard's  obtaining  from  the  English  monarch  posses- 

♦  King  James's  Works,  p.  355. 

tSee  James's  letter  to  the  states-general ;  Mercure  Francais,  t.  xi.  pp.  460. 
470. 
X  Cerisier,  t.  v.  p.  75,  Sec.  §  Rapin,  lib.  xviii.  p.  74. 

ULauriers  de  Nassau. 


202  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1616. 

sion  of  the  strong  places  in  question.  He  therefore  resolved 
on  obtaining  their  recovery ;  and  his  great  care  was  to  get 
them  back  with  a  considerable  abatement  of  the  enormous 
debt  for  w^hich  they  stood  pledged,  and  which  now  amounted 
to  8,000,000  florins.* 

Barneveldt  commenced  his  operations  by  sounding  the 
needy  monarch  through  the  medium  of  Noel  Caron,  the  am- 
bassador from  the  states-general ;  and  he  next  managed  so  as 
that  James  himself  should  offer  to  give  up  the  towns,  thereby 
allowing  a  fair  pretext  to  the  states  for  claiming  a  diminution 
of  the  debt.  The  English  garrisons  were  unpaid ;  and  their 
complaints  brought  down  a  strong  remonstrance  from  James, 
and  excuses  from  the  states,  founded  on  the  poverty  of  their 
financial  resources.  The  negotiation  rapidly  went  on,  in  the 
same  spirit  of  avidity  on  the  part  of  the  king,  and  of  good 
management  on  that  of  his  debtors.  It  was  finally  agreed 
that  the  states  should  pay  in  full  of  the  demand  2,728,000 
florms  (about  250,000/.  sterling,)  being  about  one-third  of  the 
debt.  Prince  Maurice  repaired  to  the  cautionary  towns  in 
the  month  of  June,  and  received  them  at  the  hands  of  the 
English  governors ;  the  garrisons  at  the  same  time  entering 
into  the  service  of  the  republic.f 

The  accomplishment  of  this  measure  afforded  the  highest 
satisfaction  to  the  United  States.  It  caused  infinite  discon- 
tent in  England ;  and  James,  with  the  common  injustice  of 
men  who  make  a  bad  bargain,  (even  though  its  conditions  be 
of  their  own  seeking,  and  suited  to  their  own  convenience,) 
turned  his  own  self-dissatisfaction  into  bitter  hatred  against 
him  whose  watchful  integrity  had  successfully  labored  for  his 
country's  good.  Barneveldt's  leaning  towards  France  and 
the  Arminians  filled  the  measure  of  James's  unworthy  enmi-. 
ty.|  Its  effects  were  soon  apparent,  on  the  arrival  at  the 
Hague  of  Carleton,  who  succeeded  Winwood  as  James's  am- 
bassador. The  haughty  pretensions  of  this  diplomatist,  whose 
attention  seemed  turned  to  theological  disputes  rather  than 
politics,  gave  great  disgust ;  and  he  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  persecution  which  led  to  the  tragical  end  of  Barne- 
veldt's  valuable  life.{ 

While  this  indefatigable  patriot  was  busy  in  relieving  his 
country  from  its  dependence  on  England,  his  enemies  accused 
him  of  the  wish  to  reduce  it  once  more  to  Spanish  tyranny. 
Francis  Aarsens,  son  to  him  who  proved  himself  so  incorrupti- 
ble when  attempted  to  be  bribed  by  Neyen,  was  one  of  the 

*  Cerisier. 

t  Carleton's  Mem.  vol.  i.  p.  57,  &c.    Uume,  vol.  viii.  p.  82. 

i  Cabala,  i.  160.  §  Cerisier,  t.  v.  p.  196. 


I 


1616.       MATTRICE  INTRIGUES  FOR  REGAL  POWER.  203 

foremost  of  the  faction  who  now  labored  for  the  downfall  of 
the  pensionary.  He  was  a  man  of  infinite  dissimulation ; 
v^ersed  in  all  the  intrigues  of  courts ;  and  so  deep  in  all  their 
tortuous  tactics,  that  cardinal  Richelieu,  well  qualified  to 
prize  that  species  of  talent,  declared  that  he  knew  only  three 
great  political  geniuses,  of  whom  Francis  Aarsens  was  one.* 
Prince  Maurice  now  almost  openly  avowed  his  pretensions 
to  absolute  sovereignty:  he  knew  that  his  success  wholly 
depended  on  the  consent  of  Barneveldt.  To  seduce  him  to 
favor  his  designs,  he  had  recourse  to  the  dowager  princess  of 
Orange,  his  mother-in-law,  whose  gentle  character  and  ex- 
emplary conduct  had  procured  her  universal  esteem,  and  the 
influence  naturally  attendant  on  it.  Maurice  took  care  to 
make  her  understand  that  her  interest  in  his  object  was  not 
trifling.  Long  time  attached  to  Gertrude  van  Mechlen,  his 
favorite  mistress,  who  had  borne  him  several  children,  he 
now  announced  his  positive  resolution  to  remain  unmarried ; 
so  that  his  brother  Frederick  Henry,  the  dowager's  only  son, 
would  be  sure  to  succeed  to  the  sovereignty  he  aimed  at. 
The  princess,  not  insensible  to  this  appeal,  followed  the  in- 
structions of  Maurice,  and  broached  the  affair  to  Barneveldt ; 
but  he  was  inexorable.  He  clearly  explained  to  her  the  peril- 
ous career  on  which  the  prince  proposed  to  enter.  He  showed 
how  great,  how  independent,  how  almost  absolute,  he  might 
continue,  without  shocking  the  principles  of  republicanism 
by  grasping  at  an  empty  dignity,  which  could  not  virtually 
increase  his  authority,  and  would  most  probably  convulse 
the  state  to  its  foundation,  and  lead  to  his  own  ruin.  The 
princess,  convinced  by  his  reasoning,  repaired  to  Mau- 
rice ;  but  instead  of  finding  him  as  ready  a  convert  as  she 
\  herself  had  been,  she  received  as  cold  an  answer  as  was  com- 
I  patible  with  a  passionate  temper,  wounded  pride,  and  disap- 
pointed ambition.  The  princess  and  Barneveldt  recounted 
the  whole  affair  to  Maurier  the  French  ambassador ;  and  his 
son  has  transmitted  it  to  posterity,  f 

We  cannot  follow  the  misguided  prince  in  all  the  winding 
ways  of  intrigue  and  subterfuge  through  which  he  labored  to 
reach  his  object.  Religion,  the  holiest  of  sentiments,  and 
Christianity,  the  most  sacred  of  its  forms,  were  perpetually 
degraded  by  being  made  the  pretexts  for  that  unworthy  ob- 
ject. He  was  for  a  while  diverted  from  its  direct  pursuit  by 
the  preparation  made  to  aflTord  assistance  to  some  of  the  allies 
of  the  republic.  Fifty  thousand  florins  a  month  were  granted 
to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  who  was  at  war  with  Spain  ;$  and 

*  Cerisier      f  Aubery  du  Maurier's  Memoirs.     X  Carleton,  vol.  i.  p.  324. 


204  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1617. 

7000  men,  with  nearly  forty  ships,  were  dispatched  to  the 
aid  of  the  republic  of  Venice,  in  its  contest  with  Ferdinand 
archduke  of  Gratz,  who  was  afterwards  elected  emperor. 
The  honorary  empire  of  the  seas  seems  at  this  time  to  have 
been  successfully  claimed  by  the  United  Provinces:  they 
paid  back  with  interest  the  haughty  conduct  with  which  they 
had  been  long  treated  by  the  English  ;*  and  they  refused  to 
pay  the  fishery  duties  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Brit- 
ain were  subject.  The  Dutch  sailors  had  even  the  temerity, 
under  pretext  of  pursuing  pirates,  to  violate  the  British  terri- 
tory :  they  set  fire  to  the  town  of  Crookhaven,  in  Ireland, 
and  massacred  several  of  the  inhabitants.  King  James,  im- 
mersed in  theological  studies,  appears  to  have  passed  slightly 
over  this  outrage,  f  More  was  to  have  been  expected  from 
his  usual  attention  to  the  affairs  of  Ireland ;  his  management 
of  which  ill-fated  country  is  the  best  feature  of  his  political 
character,  and  ought,  to  Irish  feelings  at  least,  to  be  consider- 
ed to  redeem  its  many  errors.  But  he  took  fire  at  the  news 
that  the  states  had  prohibited  the  importation  of  cloth  dyed 
and  dressed  in  England.  It  required  the  best  exertion  of 
Barne veldt's  talents  to  pacify  him ;  and  it  was  not  easy  to 
effect  this  through  the  jaundiced  medium  of  the  ambassador 
Carleton.  But  it  was  unanswerably  argued  by  the  pensiona- 
ry, that  the  manufacture  of  cloth  was  one  of  those  ancient 
and  natural  sources  of  wealth  which  England  had  ravished 
from  the  Netherlands,  and  w^hich  the  latter  was  justified  ii 
recovering  by  every  effort  consistent  with  national  honor  ant- 
fair  principles  of  government.  J 

The  influence  of  Prince  Maurice  had  gained  complete  suc- 
cess for  the  Calvinist  party,  in  its  various  titles  of  Gomarists 
non-remonstrants,  &c.  The  audacity  and  violence  of  these 
ferocious  sectarians  knew  no  bounds.  Outrages,  too  many  t( 
enumerate,  became  common  through  the  country ;  and  Ar 
minianism  was  on  all  sides  assailed  and  persecuted.  Barne 
veldt  frequently  appealed  to  Maurice  without  effect ;  and  al 
the  efforts  of  the  former  to  obtain  justice  by  means  of  th^ 
civil  authorities  were  paralyzed  by  the  inaction  in  which  tht 
prince  retained  the  military  force.  In  this  juncture,  tin 
magistrates  of  various  towns,  spurred  on  by  Barneveldt,  call 
ed  out  the  national  militia,  termed  Waardegelders,  which  pos 
sessed  the  right  of  arming  at  its  own  expense  for  the  protec 
tion  of  the  public  peace.  Schism  upon  schism  was  the  con 
sequence,  and  the  whole  country  was  reduced  to  that  state 
of  anarchy  so  favorable  to  the  designs  of  an  ambitious  soldie] 

*  Carleton's  Mem.  vol.  i.  p.  280.     t  Wem,  vol.  i.  p.  110,  &c.     X  Carleton. 


1618.  SYNOD  AT  DORT.  205 

already  in  the  enjoyment  of  almost  absolute  power.  Maurice 
possessed  all  the  hardihood  and  vigor  suited  to  such  an  occa- 
sion. At  the  head  of  two  companies  of  infantry,  and  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  Frederick  Henry,  he  suddenly  set  out 
at  night  from  the  Hague ;  arrived  at  the  Brille  ;  and  in  de- 
fiance of  the  remonstrances  of  the  magistrates,  and  in  viola- 
tion of  the  rights  of  the  town,  he  placed  his  devoted  garrison 
in  that  important  place.*  To  justify  this  measure,  reports 
were  spread  that  Barne veldt  intended  to  deliver  it  up  to  the 
Spaniards ;  and  the  ignorant,  insensate,  and  ungrateful  peo- 
ple swallowed  the  calumny. f 

This  and  such  minor  efforts  were,  however,  all  subservient 
to  the  one  grand  object  of  utterly  destroying,  by  a  public 
proscription,  the  whole  of  the  patriot  party,  now  identified 
w^ith  Arminianism.  A  national  synod  was  loudly  clamored 
for  by  the  Gomarists ;  and  in  spite  of  all  opposition  on  consti- 
tutional grounds,  it  was  finally  proclaimed.  Uitenbogaard, 
the  enlightened  pastor  and  friend  of  Maurice,  who  on  all  occa- 
sions labored  for  the  general  good,  now  moderated,  as  much 
as  possible,  the  violence  of  either  party :  but  he  could  not 
persuade  Barne  veldt  to  render  himself,  by  compliance,  a  tacit 
accomplice  with  a  measure  that  he  conceived  fraught  with 
violence  to  the  public  privileges.  He  had  an  inflexible  enemy 
in  Carleton  the  English  ambassador.  His  interference  carried 
the  question ;  and  it  was  at  his  suggestion  that  Dordrecht,  or 
Dort,  was  chosen  for  the  assembling  of  the  synod.  J:  Du  Mau- 
rier,  the  French  ambassador,  acted  on  all  occasions  as  a  me- 
diator;} but  to  obtain  influence  at  such  a  time  it  was  neces- 
sary to  become  a  partisan.  Several  towns, — Leyden,  Gouda, 
Rotterdam,  and  some  others, — made  a  last  effort  for  their 
liberties,  and  formed  a  fruitless  confederation. 

Barneveldt  solicited  the  acceptance  of  his  resignation  of 
all  his  offices.  The  states-general  implored  him  not  to  aban- 
don the  country  at  such  a  critical  moment:  he  consequently 
maintained  his  post.  Libels  the  most  vindictive  and  atrocious 
were  published  and  circulated  against  him ;  and  at  last,  forced 
from  his  silence  by  these  multiplied  calumnies,  he  put  for- 
ward his  "  Apology,"  addressed  to  the  States  of  Holland. 

This  dignified  vindication  only  produced  new  outrages ; 
Maurice,  now  become  prince  of  Orange  by  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother  without  children,  employed  his  whole  authority 
to  carry  his  object,  and  crush  Barneveldt.  At  the  head  of  his 
troops  he  seized  on  towns,  displaced  magistrates,  trampled 

*  Grot.  Apol.  p.  242.  t  Ceiisier. 

J  Carle  ton's  Mem.  vol.  i.  §  Aubery,  Mem  art.  Maaricr. 


206  HISTORY    OP  THE    NETHERLANDS.  1619. 

under  foot  all  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  citizens,  and  openly 
announced  his  intention  to  overthrow  the  federative  constitu- 
tion.* His  bold  conduct  completely  terrified  the  states-general. 
They  thanked  him ;  they  consented  to  disband  the  militia ; 
formally  invited  foreign  powers  to  favor  and  protect  the  synod 
about  to  be  held  at  Dort,  The  return  of  Carle  ton  from  Eng- 
land, where  he  had  gone  to  receive  the  more  positive  prom- 
ises of  support  from  king  James,  was  only  wanting,  to  decide 
Maurice  to  take  the  final  step  ;f  and  no  sooner  did  the  am- 
bassador arrive  at  the  Hague,  than  Barneveldt  and  his  most 
able  friends,  Grotius,  Hoogerbeets,  and  Ledenberg,  were  ar- 
rested in  the  name  of  the  states-general.J  ^:'  . 

The  country  was  taken  by  surprise  :  no  resistance  was  of- 
fered. The  concluding  scenes  of  the  tragedy  were  hurried ! 
on :  violence  was  succeeded  by  violence,  against  public  feel- 
ing and  public  justice.  Maurice  became  completely  absolute 
in  every  thing  but  in  name.  The  supplications  of  ambassa- 
dors, the  protests  of  individuals,  the  arguments  of  statesmen, 
were  alike  unavailing  to  stop  the  torrent  of  despotism  and  in- 
justice. The  synod  of  Dort  was  opened  on  the  13th  of  No- 
vember, 1618.  Theology  was  mystified ;  religion  disgraced ; 
Christianity  outraged.  And  after  152  sittings,  during  six 
months'  display  of  ferocity  and  fraud,  the  solemn  mockery 
was  closed  on  the  9th  of  May,  1619,  by  the  declaration  of  its 
president,  that  "  its  miraculous  labors  had  made  hell  tremble."  J 

Proscriptions,  banishments,  and  death,  were  the  natural 
consequences  of  this  synod.  The  divisions  which  it  had  pro- 
fessed to  extinguish  were  rendered  a  thousand  times  more 
violent  than  before.  Its  decrees  did  incalculable  ill  to  the 
cause  they  were  meant  to  promote.  The  Anglican  church 
was  the  first  to  reject  the  canons  of  Dort  with  horror  and 
contempt.  II  The  Protestants  of  France  and  Germany,  and 
even  Geneva,  the  nurse  and  guardian  of  Calvinism,  were 
shocked  and  disgusted,  and  unanimously  softened  down  the 
rigor  of  their  respective  creeds. '  But  the  moral  efiects  of 
this  memorable  conclave  were  too  remote  to  prevent  the  sac- 
rifice which  almost  immediately  followed  the  celebration  of 
its  rites.  A  trial  by  twenty-four  prejudiced  enemies,  by  cour- 
tesy called  judges,  which  in  its  progress  and  its  result  throws 
judicial  dignity  into  scorn,  ended  in  the  condemnation  of  Bar- 
neveldt and  his  fellow  patriots,  for  treason  against  the  liber- 
ties they  had  vainly  labored  to  save.  Barneveldt  died  on  the 
scaffold  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner,  on  the  13th  of  May, 

*  Cerisier,  t.  v.  p.  252.  f  Uitenbog.  Hist.  p.  994.         X  Cerisier. 

§  Brandt,  t.  ii.  pp.  610.  616.  ||  Cerisier. 


1619.  EXECUTION    OF    BARNEVELDT.  207 

1619,  in  the  72d  year  of  his  age.  Grotius  and  Hoogerbeets 
were  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Ledenberg  com- 
mitted suicide  in  his  cell,  sooner  than  brave  the  tortures 
which  he  anticipated  at  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 

Many  more  pages  than  we  are  able  to  afford  sentences, 
might  be  devoted  to  the  details  of  these  iniquitous  proceed- 
ings, and  an  account  of  their  awful  consummation.  The  pious 
heroism  of  Barne veldt  was  never  excelled  by  any  martyr  to 
the  most  holy  cause.  He  appealed  to  Maurice  against  the 
unjust  sentence  which  condemned  him  to  death  ;  but  he 
scorned  to  beg  his  life.  He  met  his  fate  with  such  temperate 
courage  as  was  to  be  expected  from  the  dignified  energy  of 
his  life.  His  last  words  were  worthy  a  philosopher  whose 
thoughts,  even  in  his  latest  moments,  were  superior  to  mere 
personal  hope  or  fear,  and  turned  to  the  deep  mysteries  of  his 
being.  "  O  God !"  cried  De  Barneveldt,  "  wliat  then  is  man]" 
as  he  bent  his  head  to  the  sword  that  severed  it  from  his  body, 
and  sent  the  inquiring  spirit  to  learn  the  great  mystery  for 
which  it  longed. 


CHAP.  XVII. 
1619—1625. 

TO  THE   DEATH   OF   PRINCE  MAURICE. 

The  princess-dowager  of  Orange,  and  Du  Maurier  the 
French  ambassador,  had  vainly  implored  mercy  for  the  inno- 
cent victim  at  the  hands  of  the  inexorable  stadtholder.  Mau- 
rice refused  to  see  his  mother-in-law :  he  left  the  ambassa- 
dor's appeal  unanswered.  This  is  enough  for  the  rigid  jus- 
tice of  history,  that  cannot  be  blinded  by  partiality,  but  hands 
over  to  shame,  at  the  close  of  their  career,  even  those  whom 
she  nursed  in  the  very  cradle  of  heroism.  But  an  accusation 
has  become  current,  more  fatal  to  the  fame  of  prince  Maurice, 
because  it  strikes  at  the  root  of  his  claims  to  feeling,  which 
could  not  be  impugned  by  a  mere  perseverance  in  severity 
that  might  have  sprung  from  mistaken  views.  It  is  asserted, 
but  only  as  general  belief,  that  he  witnessed  the  execution 
of  Barneveldt.*  The  little  window  of  an  octagonal  tower, 
overlooking  the  square  of  the  Binnenhof  at  the  Hague,  where 
the  tragedy  was  acted,  is  still  shown  as  the  spot  from  which 

*  Grotius,  Aiibery,  &c. 


208  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1620. 

the  prince  gazed  on  the  scene.  Almost  concealed  from  view 
among  the  clustering  buildings  of  the  place,  it  is  well  adapt- 
ed to  give  weight  to  the  tradition ;  but  it  may  not,  perhaps, 
even  now  be  ,too  late  to  raise  a  generous  incredulity  as  to  an 
assertion  of  which  no  eye-witness  attestation  is  recorded, 
and  which  might  have  been  the  invention  of  malignity. 
There  are  many  statements  of  history  which  it  is  immaterial 
to  substantiate  or  disprove.  Splendid  fictions  of  public  virtue 
have  often  produced  their  good,  if  once  received  as  fact ;  but, 
when  private  character  is  at  stake,  every  conscientious  wri- 
ter or  reader  will  cherish  his  "  historic  doubts,"  when  he  re- 
flects on  the  facility  with  which  calumny  is  sent  abroad,  the 
avidity  with  which  it  is  received,  and  the  careless  ease  with 
which  men  credit  what  it  costs  little  to  invent  and  propagate, 
but  requires  an  age  of  trouble  and  an  almost  impossible  con- 
junction of  opportunities  effectually  to  refute. 

Grotius  and  Hoogerbeets  were  confined  in  the  castle  of 
I^uvestein.  Moersbergen,  a  leading  patriot  of  .Utrecht ;  De 
Haan,  pensionary  of  Haarlem ;  and  Uitenbogaard,  the  chosen 
confidant  of  Maurice,  but  the  friend  of  Barneveldt;  were 
next  accused  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  or  banishment. 
And  thus  Arminianism,  deprived  of  its  chiefs,  was  for  the 
time  completely  stifled.  The  remonstrants,  thrown  into  utter 
despair,  looked  to  emigration  as  their  last  resource.  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus  king  of  Sweden,  and  Frederick  duke  of  Hol- 
stein,  offered  them  shelter  and  protection  in  their  respective 
states.  Several  availed  themselves  of  these  offers ;  but  the 
states-general,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  self-expatriation, 
moderated  their  rigor,  and  thus  checked  the  desolating  evil. 
Several  of  the  imprisoned  Arminians  had  the  good  fortune  to 
elude  the  vigilance  of  their  jailors ;  but  the  escape  of  Gro- 
tius is  the  most  remarkable  of  all,  both  from  his  own  celebrity 
as  one  of  the  first  writers  of  his  age  in  the  most  varied 
walks  of  literature,  and  from  its  peculiar  circumstances, 
which  only  found  a  parallel  in  European  history  after  a  lapse 
of  two  centuries.* 

Grotius  was  freely  allowed  during  his  close  imprisonment 
all  the  relaxations  of  study.  His  friends  supplied  him  with 
quantities  of  books,  which  were  usually  brought  into  the  for- 
tress in  a  trunk  two  feet  two  inches  long,  which  the  governor 
regularly  and  carefully  examined  during  the  first  year.  But 
custom  brought  relaxation  in  the  strictness  of  the  prison 
rules ;  and  the  wife  of  the  illustrious  prisoner,  his  faithful 

*  We  allude  to  the  escape  of  Lavalette  from  the  prison  of  the  Concierge- 
rie  in  Paris,  in  1815,  which  so  painfully  excited  the  interest  of  all  Europe 
for  the  intended  victim's  wife,  whose  reason  was  the  forfeit  of  her  exertion. 


1620.  ESCAPE    OF    GROTIUS.  209 

and  constant  visiter,  proposed  the  plan  of  his  escape,  to  whicli 
he  g"ave  a  ready  and,  all  hazards  considered,  a  courageous 
assent.  Shut  up  in  this  trunk  for  two  hours,  and  with  all  the 
risk  of  suffocation,  and  of  injury  from  the  rude  handling"  of 
the  soldiers  who  carried  it  out  of  the  fort,  Grotius  was  brought 
clear  off  by  the  very  agents  of  his  persecutors,  and  safely  de- 
livered to  the  care  of  his  devoted  and  discreet  female  servant, 
who  knew  the  secret  and  kept  it  well.  She  attended  the 
important  consignment  in  the  barge  to  the  town  of  Gorcum  ; 
and  afler  various  risks  of  discovery,  providentially  escaped, 
Grotius  at  length  found  himself  safe  beyond  the  limits  of  his 
native  land.  His  wife,  whose  torturing  suspense  may  be 
imagined  the  while,  concealed  the  stratagem  as  long  as  it 
was  possible  to  impose  on  the  jailor  with  the  pardonable  and 
praiseworthy  fiction  of  her  husband's  illness  and  confinement 
to  his  bed.  The  government,  outrageous  at  the  result  of  the 
affair,  at  first  proposed  to  hold  this  interesting  prisoner  in 
place  of  the  prey  they  had  lost,  and  to  proceed  criminally 
against  her.  But  afler  a  fortnight's  confinement  she  was  re- 
stored to  liberty,  and  the  country  saved  from  the  disgrace  of 
so  ungenerous  and  cowardly  a  proceeding.*  Grotius  repaired 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  in  the  most  flattering  man- 
ner, and  distinguished  by  a  pension  of  1000  crowns  allowed 
by  the  king.  He  soon  published  his  vindication — one  of  the 
most  eloquent  and  unanswerable  productions  of  its  kind,  in 
which  those  times  of  unjust  accusations  and  illegal  punish- 
ments were  so  fertile. 

The  expiration  of  the  twelve  years'  truce  was  now  at 
hand ;  and  the  United  States,  afler  that  long  period  of  intes- 
tine trouble  and  disgrace,  had  once  more  to  recommence  a 
more  congenial  struggle  against  foreign  enemies ;  for  a  re- 
newal of  the  war  with  Spain  might  be  fairly  considered  a 
return  to  the  regimen  best  suited  to  the  constitution  of  the 
people.  The  republic  saw,  however,  with  considerable  anx- 
iety, the  approach  of  this  new  contest.  It  was  fully  sensible 
of  its  own  weakness.  Exile  had  reduced  its  population; 
patriotism  had  subsided;  foreign  friends  were  dead;  the 
troops  were  unused  to  warfare ;  the  hatred  against  Spanish 
cruelty  had  lost  its  excitement ;  the  finances  were  in  confu- 
sion ;  prince  Maurice  had  no  longer  the  activity  of  youth ; 
and  the  still  more  vigorous  impulse  of  fighting  for  his  coun- 
try's liberty  was  changed  to  the  dishonoring  task  of  uphold- 
ing his  own  tyranny. 

The  archdukes,  encouraged  by  these  considerations,  had 

Aubcry,  rat.  Grotius. 

S2 


210  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1622. 

hopes  of  bringing  back  the  United  Provinces  to  their  domi- 
nation. They  accordingly  sent  an  embassy  to  Holland  with 
proposals  to  that  effect.  It  was  received  with  indignation ; 
and  the  ambassador  Peckius  was  obliged  to  be  escorted  back 
to  the  frontiers  by  soldiers,  to  protect  him  from  the  insults  of 
the  people.*  Military  operations  were,  however,  for  a  while 
refrained  from  on  either  side,  in  consequence  of  the  deaths 
of  Philip  III.  of  Spain  and  the  archduke  Albert.  Philip  IV. 
succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  and  the  arch- 
duchess Isabella  found  herself  alone  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  Belgian  provinces.  Olivarez  became  as  sov- 
ereign a  minister  in  Spain,  as  his  predecessor  the  duke  of 
Lerma  had  been ;  but  the  archduchess,  though  now  with  only 
the  title  of  governant  of  the  Netherlands,  held  the  reins  of 
power  with  a  firm  and  steady  hand. 

In  the  celebrated  thirty  years'  war  which  had  commenced 
between  the  Protestants  and  Catholics  of  Germany,  the  for- 
mer had  met  with  considerable  assistance  from  the  United 
Provinces.  Barneveldt,  who  foresaw  the  embarrassments 
which  the  country  would  have  to  contend  with  on  the  expi- 
ration of  that  truce,  had  strongly  opposed  its  meddling  in  the 
quarrel :  but  his  ruin  and  death  left  no  restraint  on  the  policy 
which  prompted  the  republic  to  aid  the  Protestant  cause. 
Fifty  thousand  florins  a  month  to  the  revolted  Protestants, 
and  a  like  sum  to  the  princes  of  the  union,  were  for  some 
time  advanced-!  Frederick,  the  elector.palatine,  son-in-law 
of  the  king  of  England,  and  nephew  of  the  prince,  was  cho- 
sen by  the  Bohemians  for  their  king :  but  in  spite  of  the  en- 
thusiastic wishes  of  the  English  nation,  James  persisted  in 
refusing  to  interfere  in  Frederick's  favor.|  France,  governed 
by  De  Luynes,  a  favorite  whose  influence  was  deeply  pledged, 
and,  it  is  said,  dearly  sold,  to  Spain,  abandoned  the  system 
of  Henry  IV.,  and  upheld  the  house  of  Austria. J  Thus  the 
new  monarch,  only  aided  by  the  United  Provinces,  and  that 
feebly,  was  soon  driven  from  his  temporary  dignity ;  his  he- 
reditary dominions  in  the  palatinate  were  over-run  by  the 
Spanish  army  under  Spinola ;  and  Frederick,  utterly  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Prague,  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Hol- 
land. James's  abandonment  of  his  son-in-law  has  been  uni- 
versally blamed  by  almost  every  historian.  ||  He  certainly 
allowed  a  few  generous  individuals  to  raise  a  regiment  in 
England  of  2400  chosen  soldiers,  who,  under  the  command 
of  the  gallant  Sir  Horace  Vere,  could  only  vainly  regret  the 

*  Wagenaer,  Hist.  x.  420.  f  Cerisier. 

X  Carleton.  §  Aubery,  ||  See  Hume,  &c. 


1623.  WAR    IN   GERMANY.  211 

impossibility  of  opposition  to  ten  times  their  number  of  vete- 
ran troops.* 

This  contest  was  carried  on  at  first  with  almost  all  the  ad- 
vantages on  the  side  of  the  house  of  Austria,  Two  men  of 
extraordinary  character,  which  presented  a  savage  parody  of 
military  talent,  and  a  courage  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
ferocity  into  which  it  degenerated,  struggled  for  a  while 
against  the  imperial  arms.  These  were  the  count  of  Mans- 
field and  Christian  of  Brunswick.  At  the  head  of  two  des- 
perate bands,  which,  by  dint  of  hard  fighting,  acquired  some- 
thing of  the  consistency  of  regular  armies,  they  maintained 
a  long  resistance  :  but  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  commanding  the 
troops  of  the  emperor,  and  count  Tilly  at  the  head  of  those 
of  Spain,  completed  in  the  year  1622  the  defeat  of  their 
daring  and  semi-barbarous  opponents. 

Spinola  was  resolved  to  commence  the  war  against  the  re- 
public by  some  important  exploit.  He  therefore  laid  siege  to 
Bergen-op-Zoom,  a  place  of  great  consequence,  commanding 
the  navigation  of  the  Mouse  and  the  coasts  of  all  the  islands 
of  Zealand.f  But  Maurice,  roused  from  the  lethargy  of  des- 
potism which  seemed  to  have  wholly  changed  his  character, 
repaired  to  the  scene  of  threatened  danger ;  and  succeeded, 
after  a  series  of  desperate  efforts  on  both  sides,  to  raise  the 
siege,  forcing  Spinola  to  abandon  his  attempt  with  a  loss  of 
upwards  of  12,000  men.|  Frederick  Henry  in  the  mean  time 
had  made  an  incursion  into  Brabant  with  a  body  of  light 
troops;  and  ravaging  the  country  up  to  the  very  gates  of 
Mechlin,  Louvain,  and  Brussels,  levied  contributions  to  the 
amount  of  600,000  florins.  5  The  states  completed  this  series 
of  good  fortune  by  obtaining  the  -  possession  of  West  Fries- 
land,  by  means  of  count  Mansfield,  whom  they  had  dispatched 
thither  at  the  head  of  his  formidable  army,  and  who  had,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  count  Tilly,  successfully  performed 
his  mission.  II 

We  must  now  turn  from  these  brief  records  of  military 
affairs,  the  more  pleasing  theme  for  the  historian  of  the 
Netherlands  in  comparison  with  domestic  events,  which  claim 
attention  but  to  create  sensations  of  regret  and  censure. 
Prince  Maurice  had  enjoyed  without  restraint  the  fruits  of 
his  ambitious  daring.  His  power  was  uncontrolled  and  unop- 
posed, but  it  was  publicly  odious ;  and  private  resentments 
were  only  withheld  by  fear,  and,  perhaps,  in  some  measure 

*  Carleton.  t  Caj)ellan,  vol.  i.  pp.  92—97. 

X  Capellan,  vol.  i.  pp.  92—97.  §  Cerisier. 

!!  M6m.  de  Fred.  Henry,  p.  17,  &c. 


212  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1623. 

by  the  moderation  and  patience  which  distinguished  the  dis- 
ciples of  Arminianism.  In  the  midst,  however,  of  the  ap- 
parent calm,  a  deep  conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  life  of 
the  prince.  The  motives,  the  conduct,  and  the  termination 
of  this  plot,  excite  feelings  of  many  opposite  kinds.  We 
cannot,  as  in  former  instances,  wholly  execrate  the  design 
and  approve  the  punishment.  Commiseration  is  mingled  with 
blame,  when  we  mark  the  sons  of  Bameveldt,  urged  on  by 
the  excess  of  filial  affection  to  avenge  their  venerable  father's 
fate ;  and  despite  our  abhorrence  for  the  object  in  view,  we 
sympathize  with  the  conspirators  rather  than  the  intended 
victim.  William  van  Stoutenbourg,  and  Renier  de  Groene- 
veld,  were  the  names  of  these  two  sons  of  the  late  pensionary. 
The  latter  was  the  younger ;  but,  of  more  impetuous  charac- 
ter than  his  brother,  he  was  the  principal  in  the  plot.  Instead 
of  any  efforts  to  soften  down  the  hatred  of  this  unfortunate 
family,  these  brothers  had  been  removed  from  their  employ- 
ments, their  property  was  confiscated,  and  despair  soon  urged 
them  to  desperation.  In  such  a  time  of  general  discontent  it 
was  easy  to  find  accomplices.  Seven  or  eight  determined 
men  readily  joined  in  the  plot :  of  these,  two  were  Catholics, 
the  rest  Arminians ;  the  chief  of  whom  was  Henry  Slatius, 
a  preacher  of  considerable  eloquence,  talent,  and  energy.  It 
was  first  proposed  to  attack  the  prince  at  Rotterdam ;  but  the 
place  was  soon  afler  changed  for  Ryswyk,  a  village  near  the 
Hague,  and  afterwards  celebrated  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
signed  there  and  which  bears  its  name.  Ten  other  associates 
were  soon  engaged  by  the  exertions  of  Slatius :  these  were 
Arminian  artisans  and  sailors,  to  whom  the  actual  execution 
of  the  murder  was  to  be  confided ;  and  they  were  persuaded 
that  it  was  planned  with  the  connivance  of  prince  Frederick 
Henry,  who  was  considered  by  the  Arminians  as  the  secret 
partisan  of  their  sect.  The  6th  of  February  was  fixed  on  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  deed.  The  better  to  conceal  the 
design,  the  conspirators  agreed  to  go  unarmed  to  the  place, 
where  they  were  to  find  a  box  containing  pistols  and  poniards 
in  a  spot  agreed  upon.  The  death  of  the  prince  of  Orange 
was  not  the  only  object  intended.  During  the  confusion  sub- 
sequent to  the  hoped-for  success  of  that  first  blow,  the  chief 
conspirators  intended  to  excite  simultaneous  revolts  at  Ley- 
den,  Gouda,  and  Rotterdam,  in  which  town  the  Arminians 
were  most  numerous.  A  general  revolution  throughout  Hol- 
land was  firmly  reckoned  on  as  the  infallible  result;  and  suc- 
cess was  enthusiastically  looked  for  to  their  country's  freedom 
and  their  individual  fame. 


1623.  PLOT   AGAINST   PRINCE   MAURICE.  213 

But  the  plot,  however  cautiously  laid  and  resolutely  per- 
severed in,  was  doomed  to  the  fate  of  many  another ;  and  the 
jiorror  of  a  second  murder  (but  with  far  different  provoca- 
tion from  the  first)  averted  from  the  illustrious  family  to 
whom  was  still  destined  the  glory  of  consolidating  the  country 
it  had  formed.  Two  brothers  named  Blansaart,  and  one 
Parthy,  having  procured  a  considerable  sum  of  money  from 
the  leading  conspirators,  repaired  to  the  Hague,  as  they  as- 
serted, for  the  purpose  of  betraying  the  plot;  but  they  were 
forestalled  in  this  purpose :  four  of  the  sailors  had  gone  out  to 
Ryswyk  the  preceding  evening,  and  laid  the  whole  of  the 
project,  together  with  the  wages  of  their  intended  crime,  be- 
fore the  prince;  who,  it  would  appear,  then  occupied  the 
ancient  chateau,  which  no  longer  exists  at  Ryswyk.  The 
box  of  arms  was  found  in  the  place  pointed  out  by  the  in- 
formers, and  measures  were  instantly  taken  to  arrest  the 
various  accomplices.  Several  were  seized.  Groeneveld  had 
escaped  along  the  coast  disguised  as  a  fisherman,  and  had 
nearly  effected  his  passage  to  England,  when  he  was  recog- 
nized and  arrested  in  the  island  of  Vlieland.  Slatius  and  others 
were  also  intercepted  in  their  attempts  at  escape.  Stouten- 
bourg,  the  most  culpable  of  all,  was  the  most  fortunate ;  proba- 
bly from  the  energy  of  character  which  marks  the  difference 
between  a  bold  adventurer  and  a  timid  speculator.  He  is 
believed  to  have  passed  from  the  Hague  in  the  same  manner 
as  Grotius  quitted  his  prison ;  and,  by  the  aid  of  a  faithful 
servant,  he  accomplished  his  escape  through  various  perils, 
and  finally  reached  Brussels,  where  the  archduchess  Isabella 
took  him  under  her  special  protection.  He  for  several  years 
made  efforts  to  be  allowed  to  return  to  Holland ;  but  finding 
them  hopeless,  even  afler  the  death  of  Maurice,  he  embraced 
the  Catholic  religion,  and  obtained  the  command  of  a  troop 
of  Spanish  cavalry,  at  the  head  of  which  he  made  incursions 
into  his  native  country,  carrying  before  him  a  black  flag  with 
the  effigy  of  a  death's  head,  to  announce  the  mournful  ven- 
geance which  he  came  to  execute. 

Fifteen  persons  were  executed  for  the  conspiracy.  If  ever 
mercy  was  becoming  to  a  man,  it  would  have  been  pre-emi- 
nently so  to  Maurice  on  this  occasion ;  but  he  was  inflexible 
as  adamant.  The  mother,  the  wife,  and  the  son  of  Groeneveld, 
threw  themselves  at  his  feet,  imploring  pardon.  Prayers, 
tears,  and  sobs,  were  alike  ineffectual.  It  is  even  said  that 
Maurice  asked  the  wretched  mother  *'  why  she  begged  mercy 
for  her  son,  having  refused  to  do  as  much  for  her  husband  ]" 
To  which  cruel  question  she  is  reported  to  have  made  the 


214  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1624. 

sublime  answer — "  Because  my  son  is  guilty,  and  my  husband 
was  not."* 

These  bloody  executions  caused  a  deep  sentiment  of  gloom. 
The  conspiracy  excited  more  pity  for  the  victims  than  horror 
for  the  intended  crime.  Maurice,  from  being  the  idol  of  his 
countrymen,  was  now  become  an  object  of  their  fear  and  dis- 
like. When  he  moved  from  town  to  town,  the  people  no 
longer  hailed  him  with  acclamations ;  and  even  the  common 
tokens  of  outward  respect  were  at  times  withheld.!  The 
Spaniards,  taking  advantage  of  the  internal  weakness  conse- 
quent on  this  state  of  public  feeling  in  the  States,  made  re- 
peated incursions  into  the  provinces,  which  were  now  united 
but  in  title,  not  in  spirit.  Spinola  was  once  more  in  the  field, 
and  had  invested  the  important  town  of  Breda,  which  was  the 
patrimonial  inheritance  of  the  princes  of  Orange.  Maurice 
was  oppressed  with  anxiety  and  regret ;  and,  for  the  sake  of 
his  better  feelings,  it  may  be  hoped,  with  remorse.  He  could 
effect  nothing  against  his  rival ;  and  he  saw  his  own  laurels 
withering  from  his  care-worn  brow.  The  only  hope  left  of 
obtaining  the  so  much  wanted  supplies  of  money,  was  in  the 
completion  of  a  new  treaty  with  France  and  England.  Car- 
dinal Richelieu,  desirous  of  setting  bounds  to  the  ambition 
and  the  successes  of  the  house  of  Austria,  readily  came  into 
the  views  of  the  States;  and  an  obligation  for  a  loan  ofi 
1,200,000  livres  during  the  year  1624,  and  1,000,000  more 
for  each  of  the  two  succeeding  years,  was  granted  by  the 
king  of  France,  on  condition  that  the  republic  made  no  new 
truce  with  Spain  without  his  mediation.}: 

An  alliance  nearly  similar  was  at  the  same  time  concluded 
with  England.  Perpetual  quarrels  on  commercial  questions 
loosened  the  ties  which  bound  the  States  to  their  ancient  al- 
lies. The  failure  of  his  son's  intended  marriage  with  the 
infanta  of  Spain  had  opened  the  eyes  of  king  James  to  the 
way  in  which  he  was  despised  by  those  w^ho  seemed  so  much 
to  respect  him.  He  was  highly  indignant ;  and  he  undertook 
to  revenge  himself  by  aiding  the  republic.  He  agreed  to  fur- 
nish 6000  men,  and  supply  the  funds  for  their  pay,  with  a  pro- 
vision for  repayment  by  the  States  at  the  conclusion  of  a  peace 
with  Spain. 

Prince  Maurice  had  no  opportunity  of  reaping  the  expected 
advantages  from  these  treaties.  Baffled  in  all  his  efforts  for 
relieving  Breda,  and  being  unsuccessful  in  a  new  attempt 
upon  Antwerp,  he  returned  to  the  Hague,  where  a  lingering 


*  Cerisier,  t.  v.  p.  452,  &c.  t  Anl)ery. 

X  Cerisier. 


I 


1625.  PRINCE    FREDERICK    HENRY.  215 

illness,  that  had  for  some  time  exhausted  him,  terminated  in 
his  death  on  the  23d  of  April,  1625,  in  his  fifty-ninth  year.* 
Most  writers  attribute  this  event  to  agitation  at  being  unable 
to  relieve  Breda  from  the  attack  of  Spinola.  It  is  in  any  case 
absurd  to  suppose  that  the  loss  of  a  single  tow^n  could  have 
produced  so  fatal  an  effect  on  one  whose  life  had  been  an  al- 
most continual  game  of  the  chances  of  war.  But  cause  enough 
for  Maurice^s  death  may  be  found  in  the  wearing  effects  of 
thirty  years  of  active  military  service,  and  the  more  wasting 
ravages  of  half  as  many  of  domestic  despotism. 


CHAP.  XVIII. 
1625—1648. » 

TO   THE   TREATY    OF    MUNSTER. 

Frederick  Henry  succeeded  to  almost  all  his  brother's  titles 
and  employments,  and  found  his  new  dignities  clogged  with 
an  accumulation  of  difficulties  sufficient  to  appal  the  most  de- 
termined spirit.  Every  thing  seemed  to  justify  alarm  and  de- 
spondency. If  the  affairs  of  the  republic  in  India  wore  an  as- 
pect of  prosperity,  those  in  Europe  presented  a  picture  of  past 
disaster  and  approaching  peril.  Disunion  and  discontent,  an 
almost  insupportable  weight  of  taxation,  and  the  disputes  of 
which  it  was  the  fruitful  source,  formed  the  subjects  of  inter- 
nal ill.  Abroad  was  to  be  seen  navigation  harassed  and  tram- 
melled by  the  pirates  of  Dunkirk ;  and  the  almost  defenceless 
frontiers  of  the  republic  exposed  to  the  irruptions  of  the  enemy. 
The  king  of  Denmark,  who  endeavored  to  make  head  against 
the  imperialist  and  Spanish  forces,  was  beaten  by  Tilly,  and 
made  to  tremble  for  the  safety  of  his  own  States.  England 
did  nothing  towards  the  common  cause  of  Protestantism,  in 
consequence  of  the  weakness  of  the  monarch ;  and  civil  dis- 
sensions for  a  while  disabled  France  from  resuming  the  sys- 
tem of  Henry  IV.  for  humbling  the  house  of  Austria. 

Frederick  Henry  was  at  this  period  in  his  forty-second  year. 
His  military  reputation,  was  well  established ;  he  soon  proved 
his  political  talents.  He  commenced  his  career  by  a  total 
change  in  the  tone  of  government  on  the  subject  of  sectarian 
differences.  He  exercised  several  acts  of  clemency  in  favor 
of  the  imprisoned  and  exiled  Arminians,  at  the  same  time 

*  Aubery,  &c. 


216  HISTORY   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1626. 

that  he  upheld  the  dominant  religion.  By  these  measures  he 
conciliated  all  parties ;  and  by  degrees  the  fierce  spirit  of  in-  - 
tolerance  became  subdued  *  The  foreign  relations  of  the"' 
United  Provinces  now  presented  the  anomalous  policy  of  a 
fleet  furnished  by  the  French  king,  manned  by  rigid  Calvin- 
ists,  and  commanded  by  a  grandson  of  admiral  Coligny,  for 
the  purpose  of  combating  the  remainder  of  the  French  Hu- 
guenots, whom  they  considered  as  brothers  in  religion,  though 
political  foes ;  and  during  the  joint  expedition  which  was  un- 
dertaken by  the  allied  French  and  Dutch  troops  against 
Rochelle,  the  strong-hold  of  Protestantism,  the  preachers  of 
Holland  put  up  prayers  for  the  protection  of  those  whom  their 
army  was  marching  to  destroy.  The  states-general,  ashamed 
of  this  unpopular  union,  recalled  their  fleet,  after  some  severe 
fighting  with  that  of  the  Huguenots.  Cardinal  Richelieu 
and  the  king  of  France  were  for  a  time  furious  in  their  dis- 
pleasure ;  but  interests  of  state  overpowered  individual  re- 
sentments, and  no  rupture  took  place. f 

Charles  I.  had  now  succeeded  his  father  on  the  English 
throne.  He  renewed  the  treaty  with  the  republic,  which 
furnished  him  with  twenty  ships  to  assist  his  own  formidable 
fleet  in  his  war  against  Spain.  Frederick  Henry  had,  soon 
after  his  succession  to  the  chief  command,  commenced  an 
active  course  of  martial  operations,  and  was  successful  in  al- 
most all  his  enterprises.  He  took  Groll  and  several  other 
towns ;  and  it  was  hoped  that  his  successes  w^ould  have  been 
pushed  forward  upon  a  wider  field  of  action  against  the  im- 
perial arms ;  but  the  States  prudently  resolved  to  act  on  the 
defensive  by  land,  choosing  the  sea  for  the  theatre  of  their 
more  active  operations.  All  the  hopes  of  a  powerful  confed- 
eration against  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain  seemed 
frustrated,  by  the  war  which  now  broke  out  between  France 
and  England.  The  states-general  contrived  by  great  pru- 
dence to  maintain  a  strict  neutrality  in  this  quarrel.  They 
even  succeeded  in  mediating  a  peace  between  the  rival  pow- 
ers, which  was  concluded  the  following  year ;  and  in  the  mean 
time  they  obtained  a  more  astonishing  and  important  series 
of  triumphs  against  the  Spanish  fleets  than  had  yet  been  wit- 
nessed in  naval  conflicts. 

The  West  India  company  had  confided  the  command  of 
their  fleet  to  Peter  Hein,  a  most  intrepid  and  intelligent  sailor, 
r  'ho  proved  his  own  merits,  and  the  sagacity  of  his  employ- 
's on  many  occasions,  two  of  them  of  an  extraordinary  na- 
vire.   In  1627,  he  defeated  a  fleet  of  twenty-six  vessels,  with 

♦  Capellan,  i.  3G8.  t  Cerisier. 


1629.  NAVAL   SUCCESSES.  217 

a  much  inferior  force.'  In  the  following  year,  he  had  the  still 
more  brilliant  good  fortune,  near  the  Havana,  in  the  island 
of  Cuba,  in  an  engagement  with  the  great  Spanish  armament, 
called  the  Money  Fleet,  to  indicate  the  immense  wealth  which 
it  contained.  The  booty  was  safely  carried  to  Amsterdam, 
and  the  whole  of  the  treasure,  in  money,  precious  stones,  in- 
digo, &c.  was  estimated  at  the  value  of  12,000,000  florins. 
This  was  indeed  a  victory  worth  gaining,  won  almost  with- 
out bloodshed,  and  raising  the  republic  far  above  the  mani- 
fold difficulties  by  which  it  had  been  embarrassed.  Hein  per- 
ished in  the  following  year,  in  a  combat  with  some  of  the 
pirates  of  Dunkirk — those  terrible  freebooters  whose  name 
was  a  watchword  of  terror  during  the  whole  continuance  of 
the  war.* 

The  year  1629  brought  three  formidable  armies  at  once  to 
the  frontiers  of  the  republic,  and  caused  a  general  dismay  all 
through  the  United  Provinces :  but  the  immense  treasures 
taken  from  the  Spaniards,  enabled  them  to  make  preparations 
suitable  to  the  danger ;  and  Frederick  Henry,  supported  by 
his  cousin  William  of  Nassau,  his  natural  brother  Justin,  and 
other  brave  and  experienced  officers,  defeated  every  effort  of 
the  enemy.  He  took  many  towns  in  rapid  succession ;  and 
finally  forced  the  Spaniards  to  abandon  all  notion  of  invading 
the  territories  of  the  republic.  Deprived  of  the  powerful 
talents  of  Spinola,  who  was  called  to  command  the  Spanish 
troops  in  Italy,  the  armies  of  the  archduchess,  under  the 
count  of  Berg,  were  not  able  to  cope  with  the  genius  of  the 
prince  of  Orange.  The  consequence  was  the  renewal  of  ne- 
gotiations for  a  second  truce.  But  these  were  received  on 
the  part  of  the  republic  with  a  burst  of  opposition.  All  parties 
seemed  decided  on  that  point ;  and  every  interest,  however 
opposed  on  minor  questions,  combined  to  give  a  positive  nega- 
tive on  this.f 

The  gratitude  of  the  country  for  the  services  of  Frederick 
Henry,  induced  the  provinces  of  which  he  was  stadtholder, 
to  grant  the  reversion  in  this  title  to  his  son,  a  child  of  three 
years  old ;  and  this  dignity  had  every  chance  of  becoming  as 
absolute,  as  it  was  now  pronounced  almost  hereditary,  by  the 
means  of  an  army  of  120,000  men  devoted  to  their  chief}: 
However,  few  military  occurrences  took  place,  the  sea  being 
still  chosen  as  the  element  best  suited  to  the  present  enter- 
prises of  the  republic.  In  the  widely-distant  settlements  of 
Brazil  and  Batavia,  the  Dutch  were  equally  successful ;  and 

*  Cerisier,  &c.  t  Vandervynct.  J  Cerisier. 

T 


218  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1634. 

the  East  and  West  India  companies  acquired  eminent  power 
and  increasing  solidity. 

The  year  1631  was  signalized  by  an  expedition  into  Flan- 
ders, consisting  of  18,000  men,  intended  against  Dunkirk, 
but  hastily  abandoned,  in  spite  of  every  probability  of  suc- 
cess, by  the  commissioners  of  the  states-general,  who  accom- 
panied the  army,  and  thwarted  all  the  ardor  and  vigor  of  the 
prince  of  Orange.*  But  another  great  naval  victory  in  the 
narrow  seas  of  Zealand,  recompensed  the  disappointments  of 
this  inglorious  affair,  f 

The  splendid  victories  of  Augustus  Adolphus  against  the 
imperial  arms  in  Germany,  changed  the  whole  face  of  Euro- 
pean affairs.  Protestantism  began  once  more  to  raise  its 
head ;  and  the  important  conquests  by  Frederick  Henry  of 
almost  all  the  strong  places  on  the  Meuse,  including  Maes- 
tricht,  the  strongest  of  all,  gave  the  United  Provinces  their 
ample  share  in  the  glories  of  the  war.  The  death  of  the 
archduchess  Isabella,  which  took  place  at  Brussels  in  the 
year  1633,  added  considerably  to  the  difficulties  of  Spain  in 
the  Belgian  provinces.  The  defection  of  the  count  of  Berg, 
the  chief  general  of  their  armies,  who  was  actuated  by  re- 
sentment on  the  appointment  of  the  marquis  of  St.  Croix 
over  his  head,  threw  every  thing  into  confusion,  in  exposing 
a  wide-spread  confederacy  among  the  nobility  of  these  prov- 
inces to  erect  themselves  into  an  independent  republic, 
strengthened  by  a  perpetual  alliance  with  the  United  Prov- 
inces against  the  power  of  Spain. J  But  the  plot  failed, 
chiefly,  it  is  said,  by  the  imprudence  of  the  king  of  England, 
who  let  the  secret  slip,  from  some  motives  vaguely  hmted  at, 
but  never  sufficiently  explained.  5  Afler  the  death  of  Isabella, 
the  prince  of  Brabancon  was  arrested.  The  prince  of  Epinoi 
and  the  duke  of  Burnonville  made  their  escape;  and  the 
duke  of  Arschot,  who  was  arrested  in  Spain,  was  soon  libe- 
rated, in  consideration  of  some  discoveries  into  the  nature  of 
the  plot.  An  armistice,  published  in  1634,  threw  this  whole 
affair  into  complete  oblivion. || 

The  king  of  Spain  appointed  his  brother  Ferdinand,  a  car- 
dinal and  archbishop  of  Toledo,  to  the  dignity  of  governor- 
general  of  the  Netherlands.  He  repaired  to  Germany  at  the 
head  of  17,000  men,  and  bore  his  share  in  the  victory  of  Nord- 
lingen ;  afler  which  he  hastened  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
made  his  entry  into  Brussels  in  1634.11  Richelieu  had  hith- 
erto only  combated  the  house  of  Austria  in  these  countries 

*  Mem.  of  Fred.  Henry,  pp.  126—130.        t  Cerisier.        X  Vandervynct. 
§  Burnet.  ||  Vandervynct.  IF  Idem. 


1635.  BATTLE    NEAR    A  VEIN.  219 

by  negotiation  and  intrigue ;  but  he  now  entered  warmly  into 
the  proposals  made  by  Holland,  for  a  treaty  offensive  and  de- 
fensive between  Louis  XIII.  and  the  republic.  By  a  treaty 
soon  after  concluded  (8th  February,  1635,)  the  king  of  France 
engaged  to  invade  the  Belgian  provinces  with  an  army  of 
30,0(K)  men,  in  concert  with  a  Dutch  force  of  equal  number. 
It  was  agreed,  that  if  Belgium  would  consent  to  break  from 
the  Spanish  yoke,  it  was  to  be  erected  into  a  free  state :  if, 
on  the  contrary,  it  would  not  co-operate  for  its  own  freedom, 
France  and  Holland  were  to  dismember,  and  to  divide  it 
equally.* 

The  plan  of  these  combined  measures  was  soon  acted  on. 
The  French  army  took  the  field  under  the  command  of  the 
marshals  De  Chatillon  and  De  Breeze ;  and  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  a  bloody  battle,  near  Avein,  in  the  province  of 
Luxembourg,  on  the  20th  of  May,  16e35,  with  the  loss  of 
4000  men.  The  victors  soon  made  a  junction  with  the  prince 
of  Orange ;  and  the  towns  of  Tirlemont,  St.  Trend,  and  some 
others,  were  quickly  reduced.  The  former  of  these  places 
was  taken  by  assault,  and  pillaged  with  circumstances  of 
cruelty  that  recall  the  horrors  of  the  early  transactions  of 
the  war.  The  prince  of  Orange  was  forced  to  punish  se- 
verely the  authors  of  these  offences.f  The  consequences  of 
this  event  were  highly  injurious  to  the  allies.  A  spirit  of 
fierce  resistance  was  excited  throughout  the  invaded  prov- 
inces. Louvain  set  the  first  example.  The  citizens  and  stu- 
dents took  arms  for  its  defence ;  and  the  combined  forces  of 
France  and  Holland  were  repulsed,  and  forced  by  want  of 
supplies  to  abandon  the  siege,  and  rapidly  retreat.  J  The 
prince-cardinal,  as  Ferdinand  was  called,  took  advantage  of 
this  reverse  to  press  the  retiring  French ;  recovered  several 
towns ;  and  gained  all  the  advantages  as  well  as  glory  of  the 
campaign.  The  remains  of  the  French  army,  reduced  by 
continual  combats,  and  still  more  by  sickness,  finally  em- 
barked at  Rotterdam,  to  return  to  France  in  the  ensuing 
spring,  a  sad  contrast  to  its  brilliant  appearance  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  campaign. 

The  military  events  for  several  ensuing  years,  present 
nothing  of  sufficient  interest  to  induce  us  to  record  them  in 
detail.  A  perpetual  succession  of  sieges  and  skirmishes  afford 
a  monotonous  picture  of  isolated  courage  and  skill ;  but  we 
see  none  of  those  great  conflicts  which  bring  out  the  genius 
of  opposing  generals,  and  show  war  in  its  grand  results,  as 
the  decisive  means  of  enslaving  or  emancipating  mankind. 

*  Vandervynct.  t  Idem.  X  Idem. 


220  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1639. 

The  prince-cardinal,  one  of  the  many  who  on  this  bloody  the- 
atre displayed  consummate  military  talents,  incessantly  em- 
ployed himself  in  incursions  into  the  bordering  provinces  of 
France,  ravaged  Picardy,  and  filled  Paris  v^rith  fear  and  trem- 
bling. He,  however,  reaped  no  new  laurels  when  he  came 
into  contact  with  Frederick  Henry,  who,  on  almost  every  oc- 
casion, particularly  that  of  the  siege  of  Breda,  in  1637,*  car- 
ried his  object  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  The  triumphs  of  war 
were  balanced ;  but  Spain  and  the  Belgian  province^,  so  long 
upheld  by  the  talent  of  the  governor-general,  were  gradually 
become  exhausted.  The  revolution  in  Portugal,  and  the  suc- 
cession of  the  duke  of  Braganza,  under  the  title  of  John  IV., 
to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  struck  a  fatal  blow  to  the  power 
of  Spain.  A  strict  alliance  was  concluded  between  the  new 
monarch  of  France  and  Holland  ;  and  hostilities  against  the 
common  enemy  were  on  all  sides  vigorously  continued. 

The  successes  of  the  republic  at  sea  and  in  their  distant 
enterprises  were  continual,  and  in  some  instances  brilliant. 
Brazil  was  gradually  falling  into  the  power  of  the  West  India 
company.  The  East  India  possessions  were  secure.  The 
great  victory  of  Van  Tromp,  known  by  the  name  of  the  battle 
of  the  Downs,  from  being  fought  off  the  coast  of  England,  on 
the  21st  of  October,  1639,  raised  the  naval  reputation  of  Hol- 
land as  high  as  it  could  well  be  carried.  Fifty  ships  taken, 
burned,  and  sunk,  were  the  proofs  of  their  admiral's  triumph ; 
and  the  Spanish  navy  never  recovered  the  loss.  The  victory 
was  celebrated  throughout  Europe,  and  Van  Tromp  was  the 
hero  of  the  day.  The  king  of  England  was,  however,  highly 
indignant  at  the  hardihood  with  which  the  Dutch  admiral 
broke  through  the  etiquette  of  territorial  respect,  and  destroyed 
his  country's  bitter  foes  under  the  very  sanction  of  English 
neutrality.  But  the  subjects  of  Charles  I.  did  not  partake  their 
monarch's  feelings.f  They  had  no  sympathy  with  arbitrary 
and  tyrannic  government ;  and  their  joy  at  the  misfortune  of 
their  old  enemies  the  Spaniards  gave  a  fair  warning  of  the 
spirit  which  afterwards  proved  so  fatal  to  the  infatuated  king, 
w^ho  on  this  occasion  would  have  protected  and  aided  them. 

In  an  unsuccessful  enterprise  in  Flanders,  count  Henry 
Casimir  of  Nassau  was  mortally  wounded,  adding  another  to 
the  list  of  those  of  that  illustrious  family  whose  lives  were 
lost  in  the  service  of  their  country.  J  His  brother,  count  Wil- 
liam Frederick,  succeeded  him  in  his  office  of  stadtholder  of 

*  M6m.  de  Fred.  Henry,  p.  19C.  t  Cerisier. 

X  M6m.  de  Fred.  Henry. 


1641.  CONTINUANCE    OF    HOSTILITIES.  221 

Friesland ;  but  the  same  dignity  in  the  provinces  of  Groningen 
and  Drent  devolved  on  the  prince  of  Orange.  The  latter  had 
conceived  the  desire  of  a  royal  alliance  for  his  son  William. 
Charles  I.  readily  assented  to  the  proposal  of  the  states-gen- 
eral, that  this  young  prince  should  receive  the  hand  of  his 
daughter  Mary.  Embassies  were  exchanged ;  the  conditions 
of  the  contract  agreed  on ;  but  it  was  not  till  two  years  later, 
that  Van  Tromp,  with  an  escort  of  twenty  ships,  conducted 
the  princess,  then  twelve  years  old,  to  the  country  of  her  fu- 
ture husband.  The  republic  did  not  view  with  an  eye  quite 
favorable,  this  advancing  aggrandizement  of  the  house  of  Or- 
ange. Frederick  Henry  had  shortly  before  been  dignified  by 
the  king  of  France,  at  the  suggestion  of  Richelieu,  with  the 
title  of  "  highness,"  instead  of  the  inferior  one  of  "  excel- 
lency;" and  the  states-general,  jealous  of  this  distinction 
granted  to  their  chief  magistrate,  adopted  for  themselves  the 
sounding  appellation  of  "  high  and  mighty  lords."  The  prince 
of  Orange,  whatever  might  have  been  his  private  views  of 
ambition,  had,  however,  the  prudence  to  silence  all  suspicion, 
by  the  mild  arid  moderate  use  which  he  made  of  the  power, 
which  he  might  perhaps  have  wished  to  increase,  but  never 
attempted  to  abuse. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  1641,  the  prince-cardinal  Ferdi- 
nand died  at  Brussels  in  his  thirty-third  year ;  another  in- 
stance of  those  who  were  cut  off,  in  the  very  vigor  of  man- 
hood, from  worldly  dignities  and  the  exercise  of  the  painful 
and  inauspicious  duties  of  governor-general  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Don  Francisco  de  Mello,  a  nobleman  of  highly  reputed 
talents,  was  the  next  who  obtained  this  onerous  situation. 
He  commenced  his  governorship  by  a  succession  of  militarjr 
operations,  by  which,  like  most  of  his  predecessors,  he  is 
alone  distinguished.  Acts  of  civil  administration  are  scarcely 
noticed  by  the  historians  of  these  men.  Not  one  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  archduke  Albert,  seems  to  have 
valued  the  internal  interests  of  the  government ;  and  he  alone, 
perhaps,  because  they  were  declared  and  secured  as  his  own. 
De  Mello,  after  taking  some  towns,  and  defeating  the  marshal 
de  Guiche  in  the  battle  of  Hannecourt,  tarnished  all  his  fame 
by  the  great  faults  which  he  committed  in  the  famous  battle 
of  Rocroy.  The  duke  of  Enghien,  then  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  and  subsequently  so  celebrated  as  the  great  Conde,  com- 
pletely defeated  De  Mello,  and  nearly  annihilated  the  Spanish 
and  Walloon  infantry.  The  military  operations  of  the  Dutch 
army  were  this  year  only  remarkable  by  the  gallant  conduct 
of  prince  William,  son  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who,  not  yet 
T2 


222  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1642. 

seventeen  years  of  age,  defeated,  near  Hulst,  under  the  eyes   l 
of  his  father,  a  Spanish  detachment  in  a  very  warm  skirmish.*   ! 

.Considerable  changes  were  now  insensibly  operating  in 
the  policy  of  Europe.  Cardinal  Richelieu  had  finished  his 
dazzling  but  tempestuous  career  of  government,  in  whicli  the 
hand  of  death  arrested  him  on  the  4th  of  December,  1642. 
Louis  XIII.  soon  followed  to  the  grave  him  who  was  rather 
his  master  than  his  minister.  Anne  of  Austria  was  declared 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son,  Louis  XIV.,  then  only 
five  years  of  age :  and  cardinal  Mazarin  succeeded  to  the  sta- 
tion from  which  death  alone  had  power  to  remove  his  prede- 
cessor.f 

The  civil  wars  in  England  now  broke  out,  and  their  terri- 
ble results  seemed  to  promise  to  the  republic  the  undisturbed 
sovereignty  of  the  seas.  The  prince  of  Orange  received  with 
great  distinction  the  mother-in-laV  of  his  son,  when  she  came 
to  Holland  under  pretext  of  conducting  her  daughter :  but  her 
principal  purpose  was  to  obtain,  by  the  sale  of  the  crown  jew- 
els and  the  assistance  of  Frederick  Henry,  funds  for  the  sup- 
ply of  her  unfortunate  husband's  cause.J  The  prince  and 
several  private  individuals  contributed  largely  in  money ;  and 
several  experienced  officers  passed  over  to  serve  in  the  royal- 
ist army  of  England.  The  provincial  states  of  Holland,  how- 
ever, sympathizing  wholly  with  the  parliament,  remonstrated 
with  the  stadtholder ;  and  the  Dutch  colonists  encouraged  the 
hostile  eflTorts  of  their  brethren,  the  Puritans  of  Scotland,  by 
all  the  absurd  exhortations  of  fanatic  zeal.  Boswell,  the  Eng- 
lish resident  in  the  name  of  the  king,  and  Strictland,  the  am- 
bassador from  the  parliament,  kept  up  a  constant  succession 
of  complaints  and  remonstrances  on  occasion  of  every  incident 
which  seemed  to  balance  the  conduct  of  the  republic  in  the 
great  question  of  English  politics.  5  Considerable  differences 
existed :  the  province  of  Holland,  and  some  others,  leant  to- 
wards the  parliament;  the  prince  of  Orange  favored  the  king; 
and  the  states-general  endeavored  to  maintain  a  neutrality. 

The  struggle  was  still  furiously  maintained  in  Germany. 
Generals  of  the  first  order  of  military  talent  were  continually 
appearing,  and  successively  eclipsing  each  other  by  their 
brilliant  actions : — Gustavus  Adolphus  was  killed  in  the  midst 
of  his  glorious  career,  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen ;  the  duke  of 
Weimar  succeeded  to  his  command,  and  proved  himself  wor- 
thy of  the  place ;  Tilly  and  the  celebrated  Walstein  were  no 
longer  on  the  scene.  The  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  was  dead  ; 
and  his  son  Ferdinand  III.  saw  his  victorious  enemies  threaten, 

♦  M6m.  de  Fred.  Henry.  t  Cerisicr.  X  Weni.  §  Cerisier. 


1644.  FINANCIAL    EMBARRASSMENTS.  223 

at  last,  the  existence  of  the  empire.  Every  thing  tended  to 
make  peace  necessary  to  some  of  the  contending  powers,  as 
it  was  at  length  desirable  for  all.  Sweden  and  Denmark 
were  engaged  in  a  bloody  and  wasteful  conflict.  The  United 
Provinces  sent  an  embassy,  in  the  month  of  June,  1644,  to 
each  of  those  powers;  and  by  a  vigorous  demonstration  of 
their  resolution  to  assist  Sweden,  if  Denmark  proved  refrac- 
tory, a  peace  was  signed  the  following  year,  which  termina- 
ted the  disputes  of  the  rival  nations.* 

Negotiations  were  now  opened  at  Munster  between  the 
several  belligerents.  The  republic  was,  however,  the  last  to 
send  its  plenipotentiaries  there ;  having  signed  a  new  treaty 
with  France,  by  which  they  mutually  stipulated  to  make  no 
peace  independent  of  each  other.  It  behoved  the  republic, 
however,  to  contribute  as  much  as  possible  towards  the  gen- 
eral object ;  for,  among  other  strong  motives  to  that  line  of 
conduct,  the  finances  of  Holland  were  in  a  state  perfectly  de- 
plorable. 

Every  year  brought  the  necessity  of  a  new  loan ;  and  the 
public  debt  of  the  provinces  now  amounted  to  150,000,000 
florins,  bearing  interest  at  6 J  per  centf  Considerable  alarm 
was  excited  at  the  progress  of  the  French  army  in  the  Bel- 
gian provinces ;  and  escape  from  the  tyranny  of  Spain  seemed 
only  to  lead  to  the  danger  of  submission  to  a  nation  too  power- 
ful and  too  close  at  hand  not  to  be  dangerous,  either  as  a  foe 
or  an  ally.  These  fears  were  increased  by  the  knowledge 
that  cardinal  Mazarin  projected  a  marriage  between  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  infanta  of  Spain,  with  the  Belgian  provinces, 
or  Spanish  Netherlands  as  they  were  now  called,  for  her 
marriage  portion.  |  This  project  was  confided  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  under  the  seal  of  secrecy,  and  he  was  offered  the 
marquisate  of  Antwerp  as  the  price  of  his  influence  towards 
eflTecting  the  plan.  The  prince  revealed  the  whole  to  the 
states-general.  Great  fermentation  was  excited :  the  stadt- 
holder  himself  was  blamed,  and  suspected  of  complicity  with 
the  designs  of  the  cardinal.  Frederick  Henry  was  deeply 
hurt  at  this  want  of  confidence,  and  the  injurious  publications 
which  openly  assailed  his  honor  in  a  point  where  he  felt  him- 
self entitled  to  praise  instead  of  suspicion. 

The  French  labored  to  remove  the  impression  which  this 
affair  excited  in  the  republic:  but  the  states-general  felt 
themselves  justified  by  the  intriguing  policy  of  Mazarin  in 
enteruig  into  a  secret  negotiation  with  the  king  of  Spain, 
who  offered  very  favorable  conditions.     The  negotiations 

♦  Cerisier.  t  Idem.  X  Negoc.  Seer.  t.  iii.  p.  14,  &,c. 


224  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1648. 

were  considerably  advanced  by  the  marked  disposition  evinced 
by  the  prince  of  Orange  to  hasten  the  establishment  of  peace. 
Yet,  at  this  very  period,  and  while  anxiously  wishing  this 
grjeat  object,  he  could  not  resist  the  desire  for  another  cam- 
paign ;  one  more  exploit,  to  signalize  the  epoch  at  which  he 
finally  placed  his  sword  in  the  scabbard.  Frederick  Henry 
was  essentially  a  soldier,  with  all  the  spirit  of  his  race ;  and 
this  evidence  of  the  ruling  passion,  while  he  touched  the 
verge  of  the  grave,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  points  of  his 
character.  He  accordingly  took  the  field ;  but,  with  a  con- 
stitution broken  by  a  lingering  disease,  he  was  little  fitted  to 
accomplish  any  feat  worthy  of  his  splendid  reputation.  He 
failed  in  an  attempt  on  Venlo,  and  another  on  Antwerp,  and 
retired  to  the  Hague,  where  for  some  months  he  rapidly  de- 
clined. On  the  14th  of  March,  1647,  he  expired,  in  his 
sixty- third  year ;  leaving  behind  him  a  character  of  unblem- 
ished integrity,  prudence,  toleration,  and  valor.  He  was  not 
of  that  impetuous  stamp  which  leads  men  to  heroic  deeds, 
and  brings  danger  to  the  states  whose  liberty  is  compromised 
by  their  ambition.  He  was  a  striking  contrast  to  his  brother 
Maurice,  and  more  resembled  his  father  in  many  of  those 
calmer  qualities  of  the  mind,  which  make  men  more  beloved 
without  lessening  their  claims  to  admiration.  Frederick 
Henry  had  the  honor  of  completing  the  glorious  task  which 
William  began  and  Maurice  followed  up.  He  saw  the  oppres- 
sion they  had  combated  now  humbled  and  overthrown ;  and 
he  forms  the  third  in  a  sequence  of  family  renown,  the  most 
surprising  and  the  least  chequered  afforded  by  the  annals  of 
Europe. 

William  II.  succeeded  his  father  in  his  dignities;  and  his 
ardent  spirit  longed  to  rival  him  in  war.  He  turned  his  en- 
deavors to  thwart  all  the  efforts  for  peace.  But  the  interests 
of  the  nation  and  the  dying  wishes  of  Frederick  Henry  were 
of  too  powerful  influence  with  the  states,  to  be  overcome  by 
the  martial  yearnings  of  an  inexperienced  youth.  The  nego- 
tiations were  pressed  forward ;  and,  despite  the  complaints, 
the  murmurs,  and  the  intrigues  of  France,  the  treaty  of 
Munster  was  finally  signed  by  the  respective  ambassadors  of 
the  United  Provinces  and  Spain,  on  the  30th  of  January, 
1648.  This  celebrated  treaty  contains  seventy-nine  articles. 
Three  points  were  of  main  and  vital  importance  to  the  repub- 
lic :  the  first  acknowledges  an  ample  and  entire  recognition 
of  the  sovereignty  of  the  states-general,  and  a  renunciation 
for  ever  of  all  claims  on  the  part  of  Spain ;  the  second  con- 
firms the  rights  of  trade  and  navigation  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  with  the  possession  of  the  various  countries  andj 


1648.  ~  TREATY  OF  MUNSTEK.  225 

stations  then  actually  occupied  by  the  contracting  powers;  the 
third  guaranties  a  like  possession  of  all  the  provinces  and 
towns  of  the  Netherlands,  as  they  then  stood  in  their  respec- 
tive occupation, — a  clause  highly  favorable  to  the  republic, 
which  had  conquered  several  considerable  places  in  Brabant 
and  Flanders.  The  ratifications  of  the  treaty  were  exchanged 
at  Munster  with  great  solemnity  on  the  15th  of  May  follow- 
ing the  signature ;  the  peace  was  published  in  that  town  and 
in  Osnaburg  on  the  19th,  and  in  all  the  different  states  of 
the  king  of  Spain  and  the  United  Provinces  as  soon  as  the 
joyous  intelligence  could  reacli  such  various  and  widely 
separated  destinations.*  Thus,  after  eighty  years  of  unparal- 
leled warfare,  only  interrupted  by  the  truce  of  1609,  during 
which  hostilities  had  not  ceased  in  the  Indies,  the  new  re- 
public rose  from  the  horrors  of  civil  war  and  foreign  tyranny 
to  its  uncontested  rank  as  a  free  and  independent  state  among 
the  most  powerful  nations  of  Europe.  No  country  had  ever 
done  more  for  glory ;  and  the  result  of  its  efforts  was  the 
irrevocable  guarantee  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  the  great 
aim  and  end  of  civilization. 

The  king  of  France  alone  had  reason  to  complain  of  this 
treaty :  his  resentment  was  strongly  pronounced.  But  the 
United  Provinces  flung  back  the  reproaches  of  his  ambassador 
on  cardinal  Mazarin;  and  the  anger  of  the  monarch  was 
smothered  by  the  policy  of  the  minister. 

The  internal  tranquillity  of  tlie  republic  was  secured  from 
all  future  alarm  by  the  conclusion  of  the  general  peace  of 
Westphalia,  definitively  signed  the  24th  of  October,  1648. 
This  treaty  was  long  considered  not  only  as  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  empire,  but  as  the  basis  of  the  political  system  of 
Europe.  As  numbers  of  conflicting  interests  were  reconciled, 
Germanic  liberty  secured,  and  a  just  equilibrium  established 
between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  France  and  Sweden 
obtained  great  advantages ;  and  the  various  princes  of  the  em- 
pire saw  their  possessions  regulated  and  secured,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  powers  of  the  emperor  were  strictly  defined. 

This  great  epoch  in  European  history  naturally  marks  the 
conclusion  of  another  in  that  of  the  Netherlands ;  and  this 
period  of  general  repose  allows  a  brief  consideration  of  the 
progress  of  arts,  sciences,  and  manners,  during  the  half  cen- 
tury just  now  completed. 

The  archdukes  Albert  and  Isabella,  during  the  whole  course 
of  their  sovereignty,  labored  to  remedy  the  abuses  which  had 
crowded  the  administration  of  justice.    The. perpetual  edict, 

*  Vandervynct. 


226  History  of  the  Netherlands.  1648. 

in  1611,  regulated  the  form  of  judicial  proceedings ;  and 
several  provinces  received  new  charters,  by  which  the  privi- 
leges of  the  people  were  placed  on  a  footing  in  harmony  with 
their  wants.  Anarchy,  in  short,  gave  place  to  regular  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  archdukes,  in  swearing  to  maintain  the  cele- 
brated pact  known  by  the  name  of  the  Joyeuse  Entree,  did 
all  in  their  power  to  satisfy  their  subjects,  while  securing 
their  own  authority.  The  piety  of  the  archdukes  gave  an 
example  to  all  classes.  This,  although  degenerating  in  the 
vulgar  to  superstition  and  bigotry,  formed  a  severe  check, 
which  allowed  their  rulers  to  restrain  popular  excesses,  and 
enabled  them  in  the  internal  quiet  of  their  despotism  to  soften 
the  people  by  the  encouragement  of  the  sciences  and  arts. 
Medicine,  astronomy,  and  mathematics,  made  prodigious  pro- 
gress during  this  epoch.  Several  eminent  men  flourished  in 
the  Netherlands.  But  the  glory  of  others,  in  countries 
presenting  a  wider  theatre  for  their  renown,  in  many  in- 
stances eclipsed  them ;  and  the  inventors  of  new  methods 
and  systems  in  anatomy,  optics,  and  music,  were  almost  for- 
gotten in  the  splendid  improvements  of  their  followers. 

In  literature,  Hugo  de  Groot,  or  Grotius,  (his  Latinized 
name,  by  which  he  is  better  known,)  was  the  most  brilliant 
star  of  his  country  or  his  age,  as  Erasmus  was  of  that  which 
preceded.  He  was  at  once  eminent  as  jurist,  poet,  theologian, 
and  historian.  His  erudition  was  immense ;  and  he  brought 
it  to  bear  in  his  political  capacity,  as  ambassador  from  Sweden 
to  the  court  of  France,  when  the  violence  of  party  and  the 
injustice  of  power  condemned  him  to  perpetual  imprisonment 
in  his  native  land.  The  religious  disputations  in  Holland  had 
given  a  great  impulse  to  talent.  They  were  not  mere  theo- 
logical arguments ;  but  with  the  wild  and  furious  abstractions 
of  bigotry  were  often  blended  various  illustrations  from  his- 
tory, art,  and  science,  and  a  tone  of  keen  and  delicate  satire, 
which  at  once  refined  and  made  them  readable.  It  is  remark- 
able, that  almost  the  whole  of  the  Latin  writings  of  this 
period  abound  in  good  taste,  while  those  written  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  are  chiefly  coarse  and  trivial.  Vondel  and  Hooft,  the 
great  poets  of  the  time,  wrote  with  genius  and  energy,  but 
were  deficient  in  judgment  founded  on  good  taste.*  The 
latter  of  these  writers  was  also  distinguished  for  his  prose 
works ;  in  honor  of  which  Louis  XIII.  dignified  him  with 
letters  patent  of  nobility,  and  decorated  him  with  the  order 
of  St.  Michael. 

But  while  Holland  was  more  particularly  distinguished  by 

♦  Van  Alpen,  Cerisier,  &c. 


1648.  ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  227 

the  progress  of  the  mechanical  arts,  to  which  prince  Maurice 
afforded  unbounded  patronage,  the  Belgian  provinces  gave 
birth  to  that  galaxy  of  genius  in  the  art  of  painting,  which 
no  equal  period  of  any  other  country  has  ever  rivalled.  A 
volume  like  this  would  scarcely  suffice  to  do  justice  to  the 
merits  of  the  eminent  artists  who  now  flourished  in  Belgium; 
at  once  founding,  perfecting,  and  immortalizing  the  Flemish 
school  of  painting.  Rubens,  Vandyck,  Teniers,  Grayer,  Jor- 
daens,  Sneyders,  and  a  host  of  other  great  names,  crowd  on 
us,  with  claims  for  notice  that  almost  make  the  mention  of 
any  an  injustice  to  the  rest.  But  Europe  is  familiar  with 
their  fame ;  and  the  wide-spread  taste  for  their  delicious  art 
makes  them  independent  of  other  record  than  the  combina- 
tion of  their  own  exquisite  touch,  undying  tints,  and  une- 
qualled knowledge  of  nature.  Engraving,  carried  at  the  same 
time  to  great  perfection,  has  multiplied  some  of  the  merits 
of  the  celebrated  painters,  while  stamping  the  reputation  of 
its  own  professors.  Sculpture  also  had  its  votaries  of  consid- 
erable note.  Among  these,  Des  Jardins  and  Quesnoy  held 
the  foremost  station.  Architecture  also  produced  some  re- 
markable names. 

The  arts  were,  in  short,  never  held  in  higher  honor  than 
at  this  brilliant  epoch.  Otto- Venire,  the  master  of  Rubens, 
held  most  important  employments.  Rubens  himself,  appoint- 
ed secretary  to  the  privy-council  of  the  archdukes,  was  sub- 
sequently sent  to  England,  where  he  negotiated  the  peace 
between  that  country  and  Spain.  The  unfortunate  king 
Charles  so  highly  esteemed  his  merit,  that  lie  knighted  him 
in  full  parliament,  and  presented  him  with  the  diamond  ring 
he  wore  on  his  own  finger,  and  a  chain  enriched  wuth  bril- 
liants. David  Teniers,  the  great  pupil  of  this  distinguished 
master,  met  his  due  share  of  honor.  He  has  left  several  por- 
traits of  himself;  one  of  which  hands  him  down  to  posterity, 
in  the  costume,  and  with  the  decorations  of  the  belt  and  key, 
which  he  wore  in  his  capacity  of  chamberlain  to  the  arch- 
duke Leopold,  governor-general  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

The  intestine  disturbances  of  Holland  during  the  twelve 
years'  truce,  and  the  enterprises  against  Friesland  and  the 
duchy  of  Cleves,  had  prevented  that  wise  economy  which 
was  expected  from  the  republic.  The  annual  ordinary  cost 
of  the  military  establishment  at  that  period  amounted  to 
13,000,000  florins.  To  meet  the  enormous  expenses  of  the 
state,  taxes  were  raised  on  every  material.  They  produced 
about  30,000,000  florins  a  year,  independent  of  5,000,000 
each  for  the  East  and  West  India  companies.  The  population 


228  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1G48. 

in  1620,  in  Holland,  was  about  600,000,  and  the  other  prov- 
inces contained  about  the  same  number. 

It  is  singular  to  observe  the  fertile  erections  of  monopoly 
in  a  state  founded  on  principles  of  commercial  freedom.  The 
East  and  West  India  companies,  the  Greenland  company,  and 
others,  were  successively  formed.  By  the  effect  of  their  en- 
terprise, industry,  and  wealth,  conquests  were  made  and  colo- 
nies founded  with  surprising  rapidity.  The  town  of  Amster- 
dam, now  New- York,  was  founded  in  1624;  and  the  East 
saw  Batavia  rise  up  from  the  ruins  of  Jacatra,  which  was 
sacked  and  razed  by  the  Dutch  adventurers. 

The  Dutch  and  English  East  India  companies,  repressing 
their  mutual  jealousy,  formed  a  species  of  partnership  in 
1619  for  the  reciprocal  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  commerce. 
But  four  years  later  than  this  date  an  event  took  place  so 
fatal  to  national  confidence  that  its  impressions  are  scarcely 
yet  effaced ; — this  was  the  torturing  and  execution  of  severa] 
Englishmen  in  the  island  of  Amboyna,  on  pretence  of  an  un- 
proved plot,  of  which  every  probability  leads  to  the  belief 
that  they  were  wholly  innocent.  This  circumstance  was  the 
strongest  stimulant  to  the  hatred  so  evident  in  the  bloody 
wars  which  not  long  afterwards  took  place  between  the  two 
nations ;  and  the  lapse  of  two  centuries  has  not  entirely  ef- 
faced its  effects.  Much  has  been  at  various  periods  written 
for  and  against  the  establishment  of  monopolizing  companies, 
by  which  individual  wealth  and  skill  are  excluded  from  theii 
chances  of  reward.  With  reference  to  those  of  Holland  a1 
this  period  of  its  history,  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  the 
great  results  of  their  formation  could  never  have  been 
brought  about  by  isolated  enterprises ;  and  the  justice  or  wis- 
dom of  their  continuance  are  questions  wholly  dependent  on 
the  fluctuations  in  trade,  and  the  effects  produced  on  that  of 
any  given  country  by  the  progress  and  the  rivalry  of  others. 

With  respect  to  the  state  of  manners  in  the  republic,  it  is 
clear  that  the  jealousies  and  emulation  of  commerce  were  not 
likely  to  lessen  the  vice  of  avarice  with  which  the  natives 
have  been  reproached.  The  following  is  a  strong  expression 
of  one,  who  cannot,  however,  be  considered  an  unprejudiced 
observer,  on  occasion  of  some  disputed  points  between  the 
Dutch  and  English  maritime  tribunals : — **  The  decisions  of 
our  courts  cause  much  ill-will  among  these  people,  whose 
hearts'  blood  is  their  purse."*  While  drunkenness  was  a  vice 
considered  scarcely  scandalous,  the  intrigues  of  gallantry 
were  concealed  with  the  most  scrupulous  mystery, — giving 

♦  Carleton. 


1648.  MANNERS    OF    THE    PEOPLE.  229 

evidence  of  at  least  good  taste,  if  not  of  pure  morality.  Court 
etiquette  began  to  be  of  infinite  importance.     The  wife  of 
count  Ernest  Casimir  of  Nassau  was  so  intent  on  the  preser- 
vation of  her  right  of  precedence,  that  on  occasion  of  lady 
Carleton,  the  British  ambassadress,  presuming  to  dispute  the 
ftas,  she  forgot  true  dignity  so  far  as  to  strike  her.     We  may 
imagine  the  vehement  resentment  of  such  a  man  as  Carleton 
for  such  an  outrage.     The  lower  orders  of  the  people  had 
the  rude  and  brutal  manners  common  to  half-civilized  nations 
which  fight  their  way  to  freedom.     The  unfortunate  king  of 
Bohemia,  when  a  refugee  in  Holland,  was  one  day  hunting ; 
and,  in  the  heat  of  the  chase,  he  followed  his  dogs  which  had 
pursued  a  hare,  into  a  newly  sown  corn-field :  he  was  quickly 
interrupted  by  a  couple  of  peasants  armed  with  pitchforks. 
He  supposed  his  rank  and  person  to  be  unknown  to  them ; 
but  he  was  soon  undeceived,  and  saluted  with  unceremonious 
reproaches.    "  King  of  Bohemia !  King  of  Bohemia !"  shout- 
ed one  of  the  boors,  "  why  do  you  trample  on  my  wheat  which 
I  have  so  lately  had  the  trouble  of  sowing  1"  The  king  made 
I  many  apologies,  and  retired,  throwing  the  whole  blame  on 
,  his  dogs.    But  in  the  life  of  marshal  Turenne  we  find  a  more 
[  marked  trait  of  manners  than  this,  which  might  be  paralleled 
,  in  England  at  this  day.     This  great  general  served  his  ap- 
\  prenticeship  in  the  art  of  war  under  his  uncles,  the  princes 
[  Maurice  and  Frederick  Henry.    He  appeared  one  day  on  the 
I  public  walk  at  the  Hague,  dressed  in  his  usual  plain  and 
I  modest  style.    Some  young  French  lords,  covered  with  gold, 
I  embroidery,  and  ribands,  met  and  accosted  him :  a  mob  gath- 
j  ered  round ;  and  while  treating  Turenne,  although  unknown 
I  to  them,  with  all  possible  respect,  they  forced  the  others  to 
,  retire,  assailed  with  mockery  and  the  coarsest  abuse. 
i     But  one  characteristic,  more  noble  and  worthy  than  any  of 
those  thus  briefly  cited,  was  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  liberty 
of  the  press  in  the  United  Provinces.    The  thirst  of  gain,  the 
I  fury  of  faction,  the  federal  independence  of  the  minor  towns, 
(the  absolute  power  of  prince  Maurice,  all  the  combinations 
•which  might  carry  weight  against  this  grand  principle,  were 
I  totally  ineffectual  to  prevail  over  it.     And  the  republic  was, 
!on  this  point,  proudly  pre-eminent  among  surrounding  nations. 


U 


230  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHEllLANDS.  1649. 

CHAP.  XIX. 
1648—1678. 

FROM   THE   PEACE    OF   MUNSTER   TO   THE   PEACE   OF   NIMEGUEN. 

The  completion  of  the  peace  of  Munster  opens  a  new 
scene  in  the  history  of  the  republic.  Its  political  system  ex- 
perienced considerable  changes.  Its  ancient  enemies  became 
its  most  ardent  friends,  and  its  old  allies  loosened  the  bonds 
of  long-continued  amity.  The  other  states  of  Europe,  dis- 
pleased at  its  imperious  conduct,  or  jealous  of  its  success,  be- 
gan to  wish  its  humiliation ;  but  it  was  little  thought  that  the 
consummation  was  to  be  effected  at  the  hands  of  England. 

While  Holland  prepared  to  profit  by  the  peace  so  bril- 
liantly gained,  England,  torn  by  civil  war,  was  hurried  on  in 
crime  and  misery,  to  the  final  act  which  has  left  an  indelible 
stain  on  her  annals.  Cromwell  and  the  parliament  had  com- 
pletely subjugated  the  kingdom.  The  unfortunate  king,  de- 
livered up  by  the  Scotch,  was  brought  to  a  mock  trial,  and 
condemned  to  an  ignominious  death.  Great  as  were  his  faults, 
they  are  almost  lost  sight  of  in  the  atrocity  of  his  opponents; 
so  surely  does  disproportioned  punishment  for  political  of- 
fences produce  a  reaction  in  the  minds  that  would  approve  a 
commensurate  penalty.  The  United  Provinces  had  preserved 
a  strict  neutrality  while  the  contest  was  undecided.  The 
prince  of  Orange  warmly  strove  to  obtain  a  declaration  in 
favor  of  his  father-in-law,  Charles  I.  The  prince  of  Wales 
and  the  duke  of  York,  his  sons,  who  had  taken  refuge  at  the 
Hague,  earnestly  joined  in  the  entreaty ;  but  all  that  could 
be  obtained  from  the  states-general,  was  their  consent  to  an 
embassy  to  interpose  with  the  ferocious  bigots  who  doomed 
the  hapless  monarch  to  the  block.  Pauw  and  Joachimi,  the 
one  sixty-four  years  of  age,  the  other  eighty-eight,  the  most 
able  men  of  the  republic,  undertook  the  task  of  mediation. 
They  were  scarcely  listened  to  by  the  parliament,  and  the 
bloody  sacrifice  took  place. 

The  details  of  this  event,  and  its  immediate  consequences, 
belong  to  English  history ;  and  we  must  hurry  over  the  brief, 
turbid,  and  inglorious  stadtholderate  of  William  II.,  to  arrive 
at  the  more  interesting  contest  between  the  republic  which 
had  honorably  conquered  its  freedom,  and  that  of  the  rival 
commonwealth,  which  had  gained  its  power  by  hypocrisy, 
violence,  and  guilt. 


1650.  WILLIAM    II.  231 

William  II.  was  now  in  his  twenty-fourth  year.  He  had 
early  evinced  that  heroic  disposition  which  was  common  to 
his  race.  He  panted  for  military  glory.  All  his  pleasures 
were  those  usual  to  ardent  and  high-spirited  men,  although 
his  delicate  constitution  seemed  to  forbid  the  indulgence  of 
hunting,  tennis,  and  the  other  violent  exercises  in  which  he 
delighted.  He  was  highly  accomplished ;  spoke  five  different 
languages  with  elegance  and  fluency ;  and  had  made  consid- 
erable progress  in  mathematics,  and  other  abstract  sciences. 
His  ambition  knew  no  bounds.  Had  he  reigned  over  a  mon- 
archy as  absolute  king,  he  would  most  probably  have  gone 
down  to  posterity  a  conqueror  and  a  hero.  But,  unfitted  to 
direct  a  republic  as  its  first  citizen,  he  has  left  but  the  name 
of  a  rash  and  unconstitutional  magistrate.  From  the  moment 
of  his  accession  to  power,  he  was  made  sensible  of  the  jealousy 
and  suspicion  with  which  his  office  and  his  character  were 
observed  by  the  provincial  states  of  Holland.  Many  instances 
of  this  disposition  were  accumulated  to  his  great  disgust ; 
and  he  was  not  long  in  evincing  his  determination  to  brave 
all  the  odium  and  reproach  of  despotic  designs,  and  to  risk 
every  thing  for  the  establishment  of  absolute  power.  The 
province  of  Holland,  arrogating  to  itself  the  greatest  share 
in  the  reforms  of  the  army,  and  the  financial  arrangements 
called  for  by  the  transition  from  war  to  peace,  was  soon  in 
fierce  opposition  with  the  states-general,  which  supported  the 
prince  in  his  early  views.  Cornelius  Bikker,  one  of  the  bur- 
gomasters of  Amsterdam,  ^vas  the  leading  person  in  the  states 
of  Holland ;  and  a  circumstance  soon  occurred  which  put  him 
and  the  stadtholder  in  collision,  and  quickly  decided  the  great 
question  at  issue. 

The  admiral  Cornellizon  de  Witt  arrived  from  Brazil  with 
the  remains  of  his  fleet,  and  without  the  consent  of  the  coun- 
cil of  regency  there  established  by  the  states-general.  He 
was  instantly  arrested  by  order  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  in 
his  capacity  of  high-admiral.  The  admiralty  of  Amsterdam 
was  at  the  same  time  ordered  by  the  states-general  to  im- 
prison six  of  the  captains  of  this  fleet  The  states  of  Holland 
maintained  that  this  was  a  violation  of  their  provincial  rights, 
and  an  illegal  assumption  of  power  on  the  part  of  the  states- 
general  ;  and  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam  forced  the  prison 
doors,  and  set  the  captains  at  liberty.  William,  backed  by 
the  authority  of  the  states-general,  now  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  deputation  from  that  body,  and  made  a  rapid  tour 
of  visitation  to  the  different  chief  towns  of  the  republic,  to 
sound  the  depths  of  public  opinion  on  the  matters  in  dispute. 
The  deputation  met  with  varied  success ;   but  the  result 


1 


232  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1650. 

proved  to  the  irritated  prince  that  no  measures  of  compromise 
were  to  be  expected,  and  that  force  alone  was  to  arbitrate 
the  question.  The  army  was  to  a  man  devoted  to  him.  The 
states-general  gave  him  their  entire,  and  somewhat  servile, 
support.  He,  therefore,  on  his  own  authority,  arrested  the 
six  deputies  of  Holland,  in  the  same  way  that  his  uncle  Mau- 
rice had  seized  on  Barneveldt,  Grotius,  and  the  others;  and 
they  were  immediately  conveyed  to  the  castle  of  Louvestein. 

In  adopting  this  bold  and  unauthorized  measure,  he  de- 
cided on  an  immediate  attempt  to  gain  possession  of  the  city 
of  Amsterdam,  the  central  point  of  opposition  to  his  violent 
designs.  William  Frederick,  count  of  Nassau,  stadtholder 
of  Friesland,  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  detachment  of  troops, 
marched  secretly  and  by  night  to  surprise  the  town :  but  the 
darkness,  and  a  violent  thunder-storm  having  caused  the 
greater  number  to  lose  their  way,  the  count  found  himself  at 
dawn  at  the  city  gates  with  a  very  insufficient  force ;  and  had 
the  farther  mortification  to  see  the  walls  well  manned,  the 
cannon  pointed,  the  drawbridges  raised,  and  every  thing  in  a 
state  of  defence.  The .  courier  from  Hamburgh,  who  had 
passed  through  the  scattered  bands  of  soldiers  during  the 
night,  had  given  the  alarm.  The  first  notion  was,  that  a 
roving  band  of  Swedish  or  Lorraine  troops,  attracted  by  the 
opulence  of  Amsterdam,  had  resolved  on  an  attempt  to  seize 
and  pillage  it.  The  magistrates  could  scarcely  credit  the 
evidence  of  day,  which  showed  them  the  count  of  Nassau, 
and  his  force  on  their  hostile  mission.  A  short  conference 
with  the  deputies  from  the  citizens,  convinced  him  that  a 
speedy  retreat  was  the  only  measure  of  safety  for  himself 
and  his  force,  as  the  sluices  of  the  dikes  were  in  part  opened, 
and  a  threat  6f  submerging  the  intended  assailants  only  re- 
quired a  moment  more  to  be  enforced. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  disappointment  and  irritation  of 
the  prince  of  Orange  consequent  on  this  transaction.  He  at 
first  threatened,  then  negotiated,  and  finally  patched  up  the 
matter  in  a  manner  the  least  mortifying  to  his  wounded 
pride.  Bikker  nobly  offered  himself  for  a  peace-offering,  and 
voluntarily  resigned  his  employments  in  the  city  he  had 
saved ;  and  De  Witt  and  his  officers  were  released.  Wil- 
liam was  in  some  measure  consoled  for  his  disgrace  by  the 
condolence  of  the  army,  the  thanks  of  the  province  of  Zeal- 
and, and  a  new  treaty  with  France,  strengthened  by  prom- 
ises of  future  support  from  cardinal  Mazarin ;  but,  before  he 
could  profit  by  these  encouraging  symptoms,  domestic  and 
foreign,  a  premature  death  cut  short  all  his  projects  of  am- 
bition. Over-violent  exercise  in  a  shooting  party  in  Guelders, 


1650.         DEATH  OF  WILLIAM  II.  233 

brought  on  a  fever,  which  soon  terminated  in  an  attack  of 
small-pox.  On  the  first  appearance  of  his  illness,  he  was  re- 
moved to  the  Hague ;  and  he  died  there  on  the  6th  of  No- 
^vember,  1650,  aged  twenty-four  years  and  six  months.* 

The  death  of  this  prince  left  the  state  without  a  stadt- 
holder,  and  the  army  without  a  chief  The  whole  of  Europe 
shared  more  or  less  in  the  joy  or  the  regret  it  caused.  •  The 
republican  party,  both  in  Holland  and  in  England,  rejoiced  in 
a  circumstance  which  threw  back  the  sovereign  power  into 
the  hands  of  the  nation  ;t  the  partisans  of  the  house  of  Orange 
deeply  lamented  the  event.  But  the  birth  of  a  son,  of  which 
the  widowed  princess  of  Orange  was  delivered  within  a  week 
of  her  husband's  death,  revived  the  hopes  of  those  who  mourn- 
ed his  loss,  and  offered  her  the  only  consolation  which  could 
assuage  her  grief  This  child  was,  however,  the  innocent 
cause  of  a  breach  between  his  mother  and  grandmother,  the 
dowager  princess,  who  had  never  been  cordially  attached  to 
each  other. t  Each  claimed  the  guardianship  of  the  young 
prince ;  and  the  dispute  was  at  length  decided  by  the  States, 
who  adjudged  the  important  office  to  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burgh  and  the  two  princesses  jointly.}  The  states  of  Holland 
soon  exercised  their  influence  on  the  other  provinces.  Many 
of  the  prerogatives  of  the  stadtholder  were  now  assumed  by 
the  people  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  Zealand,  which  made 
an  ineffectual  attempt  to  name  the  infant  prince  to  the  digni- 
ty of  his  ancestors  under  the  title  of  William  III.,  a  perfect 
unanimity  seemed  to  have  reconciled  all  opposing  interests. 
The  various  towns  secured  the  privileges  of  appointing  their 
own  magistrates,  and  the  direction  of  the  army  and  navy  de- 
volved to  the  states-general. 

The  time  was  now  arrived  when  the  wisdom,  the  courage, 
and  the  resources  of  the  republic  were  to  be  put  once  more 
to  the  test,  in  a  contest  hitherto  without  example,  and  never 
since  equalled  in  its  nature.  The  naval  wars  between  Hol- 
land and  England  had  their  real  source  in  the  inveterate 
jealousies  and  unbounded  ambition  of  both  countries,  recipro- 
cally convinced  that  a  joint  supremacy  at  sea  was  incompatible 
with  their  interests  and  their  honor,  and  each  resolved  to  risk 
every  thing  for  their  mutual  pretensions — to  perish  rather 
than  yield.  The  United  Provinces  were  assuredly  not  the 
aggressors  in  this  quarrel.  They  had  made  sure  of  their  ca- 
pability to  meet  it,  by  the  settlement  of  all  questions  of  in- 
ternal government,  and  the  solid  peace  which  secured  them 

*  Wicquefort,  Cerisier,  &c.  t  Milton,  Defens.  Top.  Angl. 

t  Wicquefort,  liv.  i.  p.  781.  §  Cerisier. 

U2 


234  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1652. 

against  any  attack  on  the  part  of  their  old  and  inveterate 
enemy :  but  they  did  not  seek  a  rupture.  They  at  first  en- 
deavoured to  ward  off  the  threatened  danger  by  every  effort 
of  conciliation ;  and  they  met,  with  temperate  management, 
even  the  advances  made  by  Cromwell,  at  the  instigation  of 
St  John,  the  chief  justice,  for  a  proposed,  yet  impracticable 
coalition  between  the  two  republics,  which  was  to  make 
them  one  and  indivisible.  An  embassy  to  the  Hague,  with 
St.  John  and  Strickland  at  its  head,  was  received  with  all 
public  honors ;  but  the  partisans  of  the  families  of  Orange 
and  Stuart,  and  the  populace  generally,  openly  insulted  the 
ambassadors.*  About  the  same  time  Dorislas,  a  Dutchman 
naturalized  in  England,  and  sent  on  a  mission  from  the  par- 
liament, was  murdered  at  the  Hague  by  some  Scotch  officers, 
friends  of  the  banished  king ;  the  massacre  of  Amboyna, 
thirty  years  before,  was  made  a  cause  of  revived  complaint ; 
and  altogether  a  sum  of  injuries  was  easily  made  up  to  turn 
the  proposed  fantastic  coalition  into  a  fierce  and  bloody  war.f 

The  parliament  of  England  soon  found  a  pretext  in  an  out- 
rageous measure,  under  pretence  of  providing  for  the  inter- 
ests of  commerce.  They  passed  the  celebrated  act  of  navi- 
gation, which  prohibited  all  nations  from  importing  into 
England  in  their  ships  any  commodity  Avhich  was  not  the 
growth  and  manufacture  of  their  own  country.  This  law, 
though  worded  generally,  was  aimed  directly  at  the  Dutch, 
who  were  the  general  factors  and  carriers  of  Europe. |  Ships 
were  seized,  reprisals  made,  the  mockery  of  negotiation  car- 
ried on,  fleets  equipped,  and  at  length  the  war  broke  out. 

In  the  month  of  May,  1652,  the  Dutch  admiral  Tromp, 
commanding  forty-two  ships  of  war,  met  witli  the  English 
fleet  under  Blake  in  the  straits  of  Dover ;  the  latter,  though 
much  inferior  in  number,  gave  a  signal  to  the  Dutch  admiral 
to  strike,  the  usual  salutation  of  honor  accorded  to  the  Eng- 
lish during  the  monarchy.  Totally  different  versions  have  been 
given  by  the  two  admirals  of  what  followed.  Blake  insisted 
that  Tromp,  instead  of  complying,  fired  a  broadside  at  his 
vessel  ;5  Tromp  stated  that  a  second  and  a  third  bullet  were 
sent  promptly  from  the  British  ship  while  he  was  preparing 
to  obey  the  admiral's  claim.  ||  The  discharge  of  the  first 
broadside  is  also  a  matter  of  contradiction,  and  of  course  of 
doubt.  But  it  is  of  small  consequence ;  for  whether  hostili- 
ties had  been  hurried  on  or  delayed,  they  were  ultimately 
inevitable.   A  bloody  battle  began :  it  lasted  five  hours.   The 

*  Clarendon,  vol.  v.  p.  1G8.  f  Hume.  \  Idem,  vol.  vii.  p.  211. 

§  Idem,  vol.  vii.  p.  212.  ||  Wicquefort,  liv.  vi.  p.  323. 


1653.        NAVAL  WAR  WITH  ENGLAND.         235 

inferiority  in  number  on  the  side  of  the  English  was  balanced 
by  the  larger  size  of  their  ships.  One  Dutch  vessel  was 
sunk ;  another  taken ;  and  night  parted  the  combatants. 

The  states-general  heard  the  news  with  consternation:* 
they  dispatched  the  grand  pensionary  Pauw  on  a  special  em- 
bassy to  London.  The  imperious  parliament  would  hear  of 
neither  reason  nor  remonstrance.!  Right  or  wrong,  they 
were  resolved  on  war.  Blake  was  soon  at  sea  again  with  a 
numerous  fleet ;  Tromp  followed  with  a  hundred  ships ;  but 
a  violent  tempest  separated  these  furious  enemies,  and  re- 
tarded for  a  while  the  rencounter  they  mutually  longed  for. 
On  the  16th  of  August  a  battle  took  place  between  Sir  George 
Ayscue  and  the  renowned  De  Ruyter,  near  Plymouth,  each 
wdth  about  forty  ships ;  but  with  no  decisive  consequences. 
On  the  28th  of  October,  Blake,  aided  by  Bourn  and  Pen,  met 
a  Dutch  squadron  of  nearly  equal  force  off  the  coast  of  Kent, 
under  De  Ruyter  and  De  Witt.  The  fight  which  followed 
was  also  severe,  but  not  decisive,  though  the-  Dutch  had  the 
worst  of  the  day.  In  the  Mediterranean,  the  Dutch  admiral 
Van  Galen  defeated  the  English  captain  Baddely,  but  bought 
the  victory  with  his  life.  And,  on  the  29th  of  November, 
another  bloody  conflict  took  place  between  Blake  and  Tromp 
seconded  by  De  Ruyter,  near  the  Goodwin  Sands.  In  this 
determined  action  Blake  was  wounded  and  defeated ;  five 
English  ships  taken,  burnt,  or  sunk;  and  night  saved  the 
fleet  from  destruction.  After  this  victory  Tromp  placed  a 
broom  at  his  mast-head,  as  if  to  intimate  that  he  would  sweep 
the  channel  free  of  all  English  ships.  J 

Great  preparations  were  made  in  England  to  recover  this 
disgrace;  eighty  sail  put  to  sea  under  Blake,  Dean,  and 
Monk,  so  celebrated  subsequently  as  the  restorer  of  the  mon- 
archy. Tromp  and  De  Ruyter,  with  seventy-six  vessels, 
were  descried  on  the  18th  of  February,  escorting  three  hun- 
dred merchantmen  up  Channel.  Three  days  of  desperate 
fighting  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Dutch,  who  lost  ten  ships 
of  war  and  twenty-four  merchant  vessels.  Several  of  the 
English  ships  were  disabled,  one  sunk ;  and  the  carnage  on 
both  sides  was  nearly  equal.  Tromp  acquired  prodigious 
honor  by  this  battle ;  having  succeeded,  though  defeated,  in 
saving,  as  has  been  seen,  almost  the  whole  of  his  immense 
convoy.  On  the  12th  of  June  and  the  day  following  two 
other  actions  were  fought :  in  the  first  of  which  the  English 
admiral  Dean  was  killed;  in  the  second,  Monk,  Pen,  and 

*  Cerisier.  t  Hume.  t  Idem. 


236  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1653. 

Lawson  amply  revenged  his  death,  by  forcing  the  Dutch  to 
regain  their  harbors  with  great  loss. 

The  21st  of  July  was  the  last  of  these  bloody  and  obstinate 
conflicts  for  superiority.  Tromp  issued  out  once  more,  deter- 
mined to  conquer  or  die.  He  met  the  enemy  off  Scheveling, 
commanded  by  Monk.  Both  fleets  rushed  to  the  combat.  The 
heroic  Dutchman,  animating  his  sailors  with  his  sword  drawn, 
was  shot  through  the  heart  with  a  musket-ball.  This  event, 
and  this  alone,  won  the  battle,  which  was  the  most  decisive 
of  the  whole  war.  The  enemy  captured  or  sunk  nearly 
thirty  ships.  The  body  of  Tromp  was  carried  with  great 
solemnity  to  the  church  of  Delft,  where  a  magnificent  mau- 
soleum was  erected  over  the  remains  of  this  eminently  brave 
and  distinguished  man. 

This  memorable  defeat,  and  the  death  of  this  great  naval 
hero,  added  to  the  injury  done  to  their  trade,  induced  the 
states-general  to  seek  terms  from  their  too  powerful  enemy. 
The  want  of  peace  was  felt  throughout  the  whole  country. 
Cromwell  was  not  averse  to  grant  it ;  but  he  insisted  on  con- 
ditions every  way  disadvantageous  and  humiliating.  He  had 
revived  his  chimerical  scheme  of  a  total  conjunction  of  gov- 
ernment, privileges,  and  interests  between  the  two  republics. 
TJiis  was  firmly  rejected  by  John  de  Witt,  now  grand  pen- 
sionary of  Holland,  and  by  the  States  under  his  influence. 
But  the  Dutch  consented  to  a  defensive  league ;  to  punish 
the  survivors  of  those  concerned  in  the  massacre  of  Amboyna; 
to  pay  9000^.  of  indemnity  for  vessels  seized  in  the  Sound, 
5000Z.  for  the  affair  of  Amboyna,  and  85,000/.  to  the  English 
East  India  company ;  to  cede  to  them  the  island  of  Polerone 
in  the  East ;  to  yield  tht3  honor  of  the  national  flag  to  the 
English ;  and,  finally,  that  neither  the  young  prince  of  Orange 
nor  any  of  his  family  should  ever  be  invested  with  the  dig- 
nity of  stadtholder.*  These  two  latter  conditions  were  cer- 
tainly degrading  to  Holland ;  and  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
prove  that  an  absurd  point  of  honor  was  the  only  real  cause 
for  the  short  but  bloody  and  ruinous  war  which  plunged  the 
Provinces  into  overwhelming  difficulties. 

For  several  years  after  the  conclusion  of  this  inglorious 
peace,  universal  discontent  and  dissension  spread  throughout 
the  republic.  The  supporters  of  the  house  of  Orange,  and 
every  impartial  friend  of  the  national  honor,  were  indignant 
at  the  act  of  exclusion.  Murmurs  and  revolts  broke  out  in 
several  towns ;  and  all  was  once  more  tumult,  agitation,  and 
doubt.     No  event  of  considerable  importance  marks  particu- 

*  Hume,  vol.  vii.  p,  236. 


1656.  HOSTILITIES    WITH    SWEDEN.  237 

larly  this  epoch  of  domestic  trouble.  A  new  war  was  at  last 
pronounced  inevitable,  and  was  the  means  of  appeasing  the 
distractions  of  the  people,  and  reconciling  by  degrees  con- 
tending parties.  Denmark,  the  ancient  ally  of  the  republic, 
was  threatened  with  destruction  by  Charles  Gustavus  king 
of  Sweden,  who  held  Copenhagen  in  blockade.  The  interests 
of  Holland  were  in  imminent  peril  should  the  Swedes  gain 
the  passage  of  the  Sound.  This  double  motive  influenced 
De  Witt ;  and  he  persuaded  the  states-general  to  send  admiral 
Opdam  with  a  considerable  fleet  to  the  Baltic.  This  intrepid 
successor  of  the  immortal  Tromp  soon  came  to  blows  with  a 
rival  worthy  to  meet  him.  Wrangel  the  Sw^edish  admiral, 
with  a  superior  force,  defended  the  passage  of  the  Sound ; 
and  the  two  castles  of  Cronenberg  and  Elsenberg  supported 
his  fleet  w4th  their  tremendous  fire.  But  Opdam  resolutely 
advanced  :  though  suffering  extreme  anguish  from  an  attack 
of  gout,  he  had  himself  carried  on  deck,  where  he  gave  his 
orders  with  the  most  admirable  coolness  and  precision,  in  the 
midst  of  danger  and  carnage.  The  rival  monarchs  witnessed 
the  battle ;  the  kmg  of  Sweden  from  the  castle  of  Cronen- 
berg, and  the  king  of  Denmark  from  the  summit  of  the 
highest  tower  in  his  besieged  capital.  A  brilliant  victory 
crowned  the  efforts  of  the  Dutch  admiral,  dearly  bought  by 
the  death  of  his  second  in  command  the  brave  De  Witt,  and 
Peter  Florizon  another  admiral  of  note.  Relief  was  poured 
into  Copenhagen.  Opdam  was  replaced  in  the  command,  too 
arduous  for  his  infirmities,  by  the  still  more  celebrated  De 
Ruyter,  who  was  greatly  distinguished  by  his  valor  in  several 
successive  affairs :  and  after  some  months  more  of  useless  ob- 
stinacy, the  king  of  Sweden,  seeing  his  army  perish  in  the 
island  of  Funen,  by  a  combined  attack  of  those  of  Holland 
and  Denmark,  consented  to  a  peace  highly  favorable  to  the 
latter  power.* 

These  transactions  placed  the  United  Provinces  on  a  still 
higher  pinnacle  of  glory  than  they  had  ever  reached.  Intes- 
tine disputes  were  suddenly  calmed.  The  Algerines  and 
other  pirates  were  swept  from  the  seas  by  a  succession  of 
small  but  vigorous  expeditions.  The  mediation  of  the  States 
re-established  peace  in  several  of  the  petty  states  of  Germany. 
England  and  France  were  both  held  in  check,  if  not  pre- 
served in  friendship,  by  the  dread  of  their  recovered  power. 
Trade  and  finance  were  reorganized.  Every  thing  seemed  to 
promise  a  long-continued  peace  and  growing  greatness,  much 
of  which  was  owing  to  the  talents  and  persevering  energy  of 


I 


*  Cerisier. 


238  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1665. 

De  Witt ;  and,  to  complete  the  g-ood  work  of  European  tran- 
quillity, the  French  and  Spanish  monarchs  concluded  in  this 
year  the  treaty  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  peace  of  the 
Pyrenees." 

Cromwell  had  now  closed  his  career,  and  Charles  II.  was 
restored  to  the  throne  from  which  he  had  so  long  been  ex- 
cluded. The  complimentary  entertainments  rendered  to  the 
restored  king  in  Holland  were  on  the  proudest  scale  of  ex- 
pense. He  left  the  country  which  had  given  him  refuge  in 
misfortune,  and  done  him  honor  in  his  prosperity,  with  pro- 
fuse expressions  of  regard  and  gratitude.  Scarcely  was  he 
established  in  his  recovered  kingdom,  when  a  still  greater 
testimony  of  deference  to  his  wishes  was  paid,  by  the  states- 
general  formally  annulling  the  act  of  exclusion  against  the 
house  of  Orange.  A  variety  of  motives,  however,  acting  on 
the  easy  and  plastic  mind  of  the  monarch,  soon  effaced  what- 
ever of  gratitude  he  had  at  first  conceived.  He  readily  en- 
tered into  the  views  of  the  English  nation,  which  was  irri- 
tated by  the  great  commercial  superiority  of  Holland,  and  a 
jealousy  excited  by  its  close  connexion  with  France  at  this 
period. 

It  was  not  till  the  22d  of  February,  1665,  that  war  was 
formally  declared  against  the  Dutch ;  but  many  previous  acts 
of  hostility  had  taken  place  in  expeditions  against  their  set- 
tlements on  the  coast  of  Africa  and  in  America,  which  were 
retaliated  by  De  Ruyter  with  vigor  and  success.  The  Dutch 
used  every  possible  means  of  avoiding  the  last  extremities. 
De  Witt  employed  all  the  powers  of  his  great  capacity  to 
avert  the  evil  of  war ;  but  nothing  could  finally  prevent  it 
and  the  sea  was  once  more  to  witness  the  conflict  between 
those  who  claimed  its  sovereignty.  A  great  battle  was  fought 
on  the  31st  of  June.  The  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II., 
commanded  the  British  fleet,  and  had  under  him  the  earl  of 
Sandwich  and.  prince  Rupert.  The  Dutch  were  led  on  by 
Opdam  ;  and  the  victory  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  English 
by  the  blowing  up  of  that  admiral's  ship,  with  himself  and  his 
whole  crew.  The  loss  of  the  Dutch  was  altogether  nineteen 
ships.  De  Witt  the  pensionary  then  took  in  person  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet,  which  was  soon  equipped ;  and  he  gave  a 
high  proof  of  the  adaptation  of  genius  to  a  pursuit  previously 
unknown,  by  the  rapid  knowledge  and  the  practical  improve- 
ments he  introduced  into  some  of  the  most  intricate  branches 
of  naval  tactics.* 

Immense  efforts  were  now  made  by  England,  but  with  a 

*  Hume. 


1666.  NAVAL    OPERATIONS.  239 

very  questionable  policy,  to  induce  Louis  XIV.  to  join  in  the 
war.  Charles  offered  to  allow  of  his  acquiring"  the  whole  of 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  provided  he  would  leave  him  with- 
out interruption  to  destroy  the  Dutch  navy,  (and,  consequent- 
ly, their  commerce,)  in  the  by  no  means  certain  expectation 
that  its  advantages  would  all  fall  to  the  share  of  England. 
But  the  king  of  France  resolved  to  support  the  republic.  The 
king"  of  Denmark,  too,  formed  an  alliance  with  them,  after  a 
series  of  the  most  strange  tergiversations.*  Spain,  reduced 
to  feebleness,  and  menaced  with  invasion  by  France,  showed 
no  alacrity  to  meet  Charles's  overtures  for  an  offensive 
treaty.  Van  Galen  bishop  of  Munster,  a  restless  prelate,  was 
the  only  ally  he  could  acquire.  This  bishop,  at  the  head  of  a 
tumultuous  force  of  20,000  men,  penetrated  into  Friesland ; 
but  6000  French  were  dispatched  by  Louis  to  the  assistance 
of  the  republic,  and  this  impotent  invasion  was  easily  repelled. 

The  republic,  encouraged  by  all  these  favorable  circum- 
stances, resolved  to  put  forward  its  utmost  energ-ies.  Internal 
discords  were  once  more  appeased ;  the  harbors  were  crowded 
with  merchant-ships ;  the  young"  prince  of  Orange  had  put 
himself  under  the  tuition  of  the  States  of  Holland  and  of  De 
Witt,  who  faithfully  executed  his  trust ;  and  De  Ruyter  was 
ready  to  lead  on  the  fleet.  The  English,  in  spite  of  the  dread- 
ful calamity  of  the  great  fire  of  London,  the  plague  which 
desolated  the  city,  and  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of 
France,  prepared  boldly  for  the  shock. 

The  Dutch  fleet,  commanded  by  De  Ruyter  and  Tromp, 
the  gallant  successor  of  his  father's  fame,  were  soon  at  sea. 
The  English,  under  prince  Rupert  and  Monk,  now  duke  of 
Albemarle,  did  not  lie  idle  in  port.  A  battle  of  four  days* 
continuance,  one  of  the  most  determined  and  terrible  up  to 
this  period  on  record,  was  the  consequence.  The  Dutch  claim, 
and  it  appears  with  justice,  to  have  had  the  advantage.!  But 
a  more  decisive  conflict  took  place  on  the  25th  of  July,  J  when 
a  victory  was  gained  by  the  English,  the  enemy  having  three 
of  their  admirals  killed.  *'  My  God !"  exclaimed  De  Ruyter, 
during  this  desperate  fight,  and  seeing  the  certainty  of  defeat ; 
"  what  a  wretch  I  am  !  Among  so  many  thousand  bullets,  is 
there  not  one  to  put  an  end  to  my  miserable  life  ]" 

The  king  of  France  hastened  forward  in  this  crisis  to  the 
assistance  of  the  republic ;  and  De  Witt,  by  a  deep  stroke  of 


*  Hume,  vol.  vii.  p,  406.  t  Hume. 

t  In  all  these  naval  battles  we  have  followed  Hume  and  the  English  his- 
torians as  to  dates,  which,  in  almost  every  instance,  are  strangely  at  variance 
with  those  given  by  the  Dutch  writers. 


240  HISTORY   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1667. 

policy,  amused  the  Eng"lish  with  negotiation  while  a  powerful^ 
fleet  was  fitted  out.     It  suddenly  appeared  in  the  Thame^ 
under  the  command  of  De  Ruyter,  and  all  England  was  throwi? 
into  consternation.     The  Dutch  took  Sheerness,  and  burned 
many  ships  of  war ;   almost  insulting  the   capital   itself  in 
their  predatory  incursion.*    Had  the  French  power  joined 
that  of  the  Provinces  at  this  time,  and  invaded  England,  the 
most  fatal  results  to  that  kingdom  might  have  taken  place. 
But  the  alarm  soon  subsided  with  the  disappearance  of  the 
hostile  fleet ;  and  the  signing  the  peace  of  Breda,  on  the  10th 
of  July,  1667,  extricated  Charles  from  his  present  difficulties. 
The  island  of  Polerone  was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  and  the 
point  of  maritime  superiority  was,  on  this  occasion,  undoubt- 
edly theirs. 

While  Holland  was  preparing  to  indulge  in  the  luxury  of 
national  repose,  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  and  the 
startling  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.,  brought  war  once  more  to 
their  very  doors,  and  soon  even  forced  it  across  the  threshold 
of  the  republic.  The  king  of  France,  setting  at  naught  his 
solemn  renunciation  at  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  of  all  claims 
to  any  part  of  the  Spanish  territories  in  right  of  his  wife,  who 
was  daughter  of  the  late  king,  found  excellent  reasons  (for 
his  own  satisfaction)  to  invade  a  material  portion  of  that  de- 
clining monarchy.  Well  prepared  by  the  financial  and  mili- 
tary foresight  of  Colbert  for  his  great  design,  he  suddenly 
poured  a  powerful  army,  under  Turenne,  into  Brabant  and 
Flanders;  quickly  over-ran  and  took  possession  of  these  prov- 
inces; and,  in  the  space  of  three  weeks,  added  Franche- 
Comte  to  his  conquests. f  Europe  was  in  universal  alarm  at 
these  unexpected  measures ;  and  no  state  felt  more  terror 
than  the  republic  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  interest  of 
all  countries  seemed  now  to  require  a  coalition  against  the 
power  which  had  abandoned  the  house  of  Austria  only  to  set- 
tle on  France.  The  first  measure  to  this  effect  was  the 
signing  of  the  triple  league  between  Holland,  Sweden,  and 
England,  at  the  Hague,  on  the  13th  of  January,  1668.  But 
this  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  futile  confederations  on  re- 
cord. Charles,  with  almost  unheard-of  perfidy  throughout  the 
transaction,  fell  in  with  the  designs  of  his  pernicious,{  and  on 
this  occasion  purchased,  cabinet, {  called  the  Cabal;  and  he 
entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  France,  in  the  very  teeth  of 
his  other  engagements.  Sweden  was  dissuaded  from  the 
league  by  the  arguments  of  the  French  ministers ;  and  Hol- 

*  Temple,  vol.  iii.  p.  40,  &c.  t  De  Neny,  M6m.  t.  ii.  p.  29. 

t  Gourville,  M6m.  t.  ii.  p.  14.  §  Temple,  vol.  ii.  p.  179. 


1672.      THE  FRENCH  INVADE  HOLLAND.        241 

land  in  a  short  time  found  itself  involved  in  a  double  war  with 
its  late  allies. 

A  base  and  piratical  attack  on  the  Dutch  Smyrna  fleet,  by 
a  large  force  under  Sir  Robert  Holmes,  on  the  13th  of  March, 
1672,  was  the  first  overt  act  of  treachery  on  the  part  of  the 
English  government.  The  attempt  completely  failed,  through 
the  prudence  and  valor  of  the  Dutch  admirals ;  and  Charles 
reaped  only  the  double  shame  of  perfidy  and  defeat.  He  in- 
stantly issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  republic,  on 
reasoning  too  palpably  false  to  require  ^refutation,  and  too 
frivolous  to  merit  record  to  the  exclusion  of  more  important 
matter  from  our  narrow  limits. 

Louis  at  least  covered  with  the  semblance  of  dignity  his 
unjust  co-operation  in  this  violence.  He  soon  advanced  with 
his  army,  and  the  contingents  of  Munster  and  Cologne,  his 
allies,  amounting  altogether  to  nearly  170,000  men,  com- 
manded by  Conde,  Turenne,  Luxembourg,  and  others  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  France.*  Never  was  any  country  less 
prepared  than  were  the  United  Provinces  to  resist  this  for- 
midable aggression.  Their  army  was  as  naught ;  their  long 
cessation  of  military  operations  by  land  having  totally  demor- 
alized that  once  invincible  branch  of  their  forces.  No  gen- 
eral existed  who  knew  any  thing  of  the  practice  of  war. 
Their  very  stores  of  ammunition  had  been  delivered  over, 
in  the  way  of  traffic,  to  the  enemy  who  now  prepared  to  over- 
whelm them.  De  Witt  was  severely,  and  not  quite  unjustly, 
blamed  for  having  suffered  the  country  to  be  tlius  taken  by 
surprise,  utterly  defenceless,  and  apparently  without  resource. 
Envy  of  his  uncommon  merit  aggravated  the  just  complaints 
against  his  erroi;.  But,  above  all  things,  the  popular  affection 
to  the  young  prince  threatened,  in  some  great  convulsion,  the 
overthrow  of  the  pensionary,  who  was  considered  eminently 
hostile  to  the  illustrious  house  of  Orange.f 

William  III,  prince  of  Orange,  now  twenty-two  years  of 
age,  was  amply  endowed  with  tliose  hereditary  qualities  of 
valor  and  wisdom  which  only  required  experience  to  give  him 
rank  with  the  greatest  of  his  ancestors.  The  Louvenstein 
party,  as  the  adherents  of  the  house  of  Orange  were  called, 
now  easily  prevailed  in  their  long-conceived  design  of  placing 
him  at  the  head  of  affairs,  with  the  titles  of  captain-general 
and  high  admiral.  De  Witt,  anxious  from  personal  considera- 
tions, as  well  as  patriotism,  to  employ  every  means  of  active 
exertion,  attempted  the  organization  of  an  army,  and  hastened 
the  equipment  of  a  formidable  fleet  of  nearly  a  hundred  ships 

♦  De  Neny,  M6m.  t  Hume. 


242  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1672. 

of  the  line  and  half  as  many  fire-ships.  De  Ruyter,  now 
without  exception  the  greatest  commander  of  the  age,  set 
sail  with  this  force  in  search  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York  and 
marshal  D'Etrees.  He  encountered  them,  on  the  6th  of  May, 
1672,  at  Solebay.  A  most  bloody  engagement  was  the  result 
of  this  meeting.  Sandwich,  on  the  side  of  the  English,  and 
Van  Ghent,  a  Dutch  admiral,  were  slain.*  The  glory  of  the 
day  was  divided  ;  the  victory  doubtful :  but  the  sea  was  not 
the  element  on  which  the  fate  of  Holland  was  to  be  decided. 

The  French  armies  poured  like  a  torrent  into  the  territo- 
ries of  the  republic.  Rivers  were  passed,  towns  taken,  and 
provinces  over-run,  with  a  rapidity  much  less  honorable  to 
France  than  disgraceful  to  Holland.  No  victory  was  gained 
— ^no  resistance  offered ;  and  it  is  disgusting  to  look  back  on 
the  fulsome  panegyrics  with  which  courtiers  and  poets  lauded 
Louis  for  those  facile  and  inglorious  triumphs.  The  prince 
of  Orange  had  received  the  command  of  a  nominal  army  of 
70,000  men ;  but  with  this  undisciplined  and  discouraged 
mass  he  could  attempt  nothing.  He  prudently  retired  into 
the  province  of  Holland,  vainly  hoping  that  the  numerous^ 
fortresses  on  the  frontiers  would  have  offered  some  resistance 
to  the  enemy.  Guelders,  Overyssel,  and  Utrecht,  w^ere  al- 
ready in  Louis's  hands.  Groningen  and  Friesland  were 
threatened.  Holland  and  Zealand  opposed  obstruction  to 
such  rapid  conquest  from  their  natural  position ;  and  Amster- 
dam set  a  noble  example  to  the  remaining  towns — forming  aii 
regular  and  energetic  plan  of  defence,  and  endeavoring  to< 
infuse  its  spirit  into  the  rest.  The  sluices,  those  desperate 
sources  at  once  of  safety  and  desolation,  were  opened ;  the 
whole  country  submerged  ;  and  the  other  provinces  following 
this  example,  extensive  districts  of  fertility  and  wealth  were 
given  to  the  sea,  for  the  exclusion  of  which  so  many  centuries 
had  scarcely  sufficed. 

The  states-general  now  assembled,  and  it  was  decided  to 
supplicate  for  peace  at  the  hands  of  the  combined  monarchs. 
The  haughty  insolence  of  Louvois  coinciding  with  the 
temper  of  Louis  himself,  made  the  latter  propose  the  follow- 
ing conditions  as  the  price  of  peace ; — to  take  off  all  duties 
on  commodities  exported  into  Holland  ;  to  grant  the  free  ex- 
ercise of  the  Romish  religion  in  the  United  Provinces ;  to 
share  the  churches  with  the  Catholics,  and  to  pay  their 
priests ;  to  yield  up  all  the  frontier  towns,  with  several  in  the 
heart  of  the  republic;  to  pay  him  20,000,000  livres;  to  send 

*  Hume. 


1672.  MASSACRE    OF   THE    DE    WITTS.  243 

him  every  year  a  solemn  embassy,  accompanied  by  a  present 
of  a  golden  medal,  as  an  acknowledgment  that  they  owed 
him  their  liberty ;  and,  finally,  that  they  should  give  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  king  of  England. 

Charles,  on  his  part,  after  the  most  insulting  treatment  of 
the  ambassadors  sent  to  London,  required,  amongst  other 
terms,  that  the  Dutch  should  give  up  the  honor  of  the  flag  with- 
out reserve,  whole  fleets  being  expected,  even  on  the  coasts 
of  Holland,  to  lower  their  top-sails  to  the  smallest  ship  under 
British  colors  ;  that  the  Dutch  should  pay  1,000,000/.  sterling 
towards  the  charges  of  the  war,  and  10,000Z.  a  year  for  per- 
mission to  fish  in  the  British  seas ;  that  they  should  share  tlie 
Indian  trade  with  the  English ;  and  that  Walcheren  and  sev- 
eral other  islands  should  be  put  into  the  king's  hands  as 
security  for  the  performance  of  the  articles.* 

The  insatiable  monarchs  overshot  the  mark.  Existence 
was  not  worth  preserving  on  these  intolerable  terms.  Holland 
was  driven  to  desperation  ;  and  even  the  people  of  England 
were  inspired  with  indignation  at  this  monstrous  injustice. 
In  the  republic  a  violent  explosion  of  popular  excess  took 
place.  The  people  now  saw  no  safety  but  in  the  courage  and 
talents  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  was  tumultuously  pro- 
claimed stadtholder.  De  Witt  and  his  brother  Cornelis,  the 
conscientious  but  too  obstinate  opponents  of  this  measure  of 
salvation,  fell  victims  to  the  popular  frenzy.  The  latter, 
condemned  to  banishment  on  an  atrocious  charge  of  intended 
assassination  against  the  prince  of  Orange,  was  visited  in  his 
prison  at  the  Hague  by  the  grand  pensionary.  The  rabble, 
incited  to  fury  by  the  calumnies  spread  against  these  two 
virtuous  citizens,  broke  into  the  prison,  forced  the  unfortunate 
brothers  into  the  street,  and  there  literally  tore  them  to 
pieces  with  circumstances  of  the  most  brutal  ferocity.  This 
horrid  scene  took  place  on  the  27th  of  August,  1672. 

The  massacre  of  the  De  Witts  completely  destroyed  the 
party  of  which  they  were  the  head.  All  men  now  united 
under  the  only  leader  left  to  the  country.  William  showed 
himself  well  worthy  of  the  trust,  and  of  his  heroic  blood.  He 
turned  his  whole  force  against  the  enemy.  He  sought  no- 
thing for  himself  but  the  glory  of  saving  his  country ;  and 
taking  his  ancestors  for  models,  in  the  best  points  of  their 
respective  characters,  he  combined  prudence  witli  energy, 
and  firmness  with  moderation.  His  spirit  inspired  all  ranks 
of  men.  The  conditions  of  peace  demanded  by  the  partner 
kings  were  rejected  with  scorn.     The  whole  nation  was 

*  Hume,  vol.  vii.  pp.  493,  494. 


244  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1672. 

moved  by  one  concentrated  principle  of  heroism ;  and  it  was 
even  resolved  to  put  the  ancient  notion  of  the  first  William 
into  practice,  and  abandon  the  country  to  the  waves,  sooner 
than  submit  to  the  political  annihilation  with  which  it  was 
threatened.  The  capability  of  the  vessels  in  their  harbors 
was  calculated ;  and  they  were  found  sufficient  to  transport 
200,000  families  to  the  Indian  settlements.  We  must  hasten 
from  this  sublime  picture  of  national  desperation.  The  glo- 
rious hero  who  stands  in  its  foreground  was  inaccessible  to 
every  overture  of  corruption.  Buckingham,  the  English  am- 
bassador, offered  him,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  the 
independent  sovereignty  of  Holland,  if  he  would  abandon  the 
other  provinces  to  their  grasp  ;  and,  urging  his  consent,  asked 
him  if  he  did  not  see  that  the  republic  was  ruined  ]  "  There 
is  one  means,"  replied  the  prince  of  Orange,  *'  which  will 
save  me  from  the  sight  of  my  country's  ruin — I  will  die  in 
the  last  ditch."* 

Action  soon  proved  the  reality  of  the  prince's  profession. 
He  took  the  field ;  having  first  punished  with  death  some  of 
the  cowardly  commanders  of  the  frontier  towns.  He  besieged 
and  took  Naarden,  an  important  place ;  and,  by  a  masterly 
movement,  formed  a  junction  with  Montecuculi,  whom  the 
emperor  Leopold  had  at  length  sent  to  his  assistance  with 
20,000  men.  Groningen  repulsed  the  bishop  of  Munster,  the 
ally  of  France,  with  a  loss  of  12,000  men.  The  king  of  Spain 
(such  are  the  strange  fluctuations  of  political  friendship  and 
enmity)  sent  the  count  of  Monterey,  governor  of  the  Belgian 
provinces,  with  10,000  men  to  support  the  Dutch  army.  The 
elector  of  Brandenburg  also  lent  them  aid.  The  whole  face 
of  affairs  was  changed ;  and  I^uis  was  obliged  to  abandon  all 
his  conquests  with  more  rapidity  than  he  had  made  them. 
Two  desperate  battles  at  sea,  on  the  28th  of  May  and  the  4th 
of  June,  in  which  De  Ruyter  and  prince  Rupert  again  distin- 
guished themselves,  only  proved  the  valor  of  the  combatants, 
leaving  victory  still  doubtful.  England  was  with  one  common 
feeling  ashamed  of  the  odious  war  in  which  the  king  and  his 
unworthy  ministers  had  engaged  the  nation.  Charles  was 
forced  to  make  peace  on  the  conditions  proposed  by  the 
Dutch.  The  honor  of  the  flag  was  yielded  to  the  English ;  a 
regulation  of  trade  was  agreed  to ;  all  possessions  were  re- 
stored to  the  same  condition  as  before  the  war ;  and  the  states- 
general  agreed  to  pay  the  king  800,000  patacoons,  or  nearly 
300,000Z. 

With  these  encouraging  results  from  the  prince  of  Orange's 
influence  and  example,  Holland  persevered  in  the  contest 

*  Hume. 


1676.  CONGRESS    AT    NI3IEGUEN.  245 

with  France.  He,  in  the  first  place,  made  head,  during  a 
winter  campaign  in  Holland,  against  marshal  Luxembourg, 
who  had  succeeded  Turenne  in  the  Low  Countries,  the  lat- 
ter being  obliged  to  march  against  the  imperialists  in  West- 
phalia. He  next  advanced  to  oppose  the  great  Conde,  who 
occupied  Brabant  with  an  army  of  45,000  men.  After  much 
manoeuvring,  in  which  the  prince  of  Orange  displayed  con- 
summate talent,  he  on  one  only  occasion  exposed  a  part  of  his 
army  to  a  disadvantageous  contest.  Conde  seized  on  the 
error ;  and  of  his  own  accord  gave  the  battle  to  which  his 
young  opponent  could  not  succeed  in  forcing  him.  The  bat- 
tle of  Senef  is  remarkable  not  merely  for  the  fury  with  which 
it  was  fought,  or  for  its  leaving  victory  undecided,  but  as  be- 
ing the  last  combat  of  one  commander  and  the  first  of  the 
other.  "  The  prince  of  Orange,"  said  the  veteran  Conde 
(who  had  that  day  exposed  his  person  more  than  on  any  pre- 
vious occasion,)  "  has  acted  in  every  thing  like  an  old  cap- 
tain, except  venturing  his  life  too  like  a  young  soldier." 

The  campaign  of  1675  offered  no  remarkable  event ;  the 
prince  of  Orange  with  great  prudence  avoiding  the  risk  of  a 
battle.  But  the  following  year  was  rendered  fatally  remark- 
able by  the  death  of  the  great  De  Ruyter,*  who  was  killed  in 
an  action  against  the  French  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean :  and 
about  the  same  time  the  not  less  celebrated  Turenne  met  his 
death  from  a  cannon-ball,  in  the  midst  of  his  triumphs  in  Ger- 
many. This  year  was  doubly  occupied  in  a  negotiation  for 
peace  and  an  active  prosecution  of  the  war.  Louis,  at  the 
head  of  his  army,  took  several  towns  in  Belgium :  William 
was  unsuccessful  in  an  attempt  on  Maestricht.  About  the 
beginning  of  winter,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  several  bel- 
ligerents assembled  at  Nimeguen,  where  the  congress  for 
peace  was  held.  The  Hollanders,  loaded  with  debts  and 
taxes,  and  seeing  the  weakness  and  slowness  of  their  allies 
the  Spaniards  and  Germans,  prognosticated  nothing  but  mis- 
fortunes. Their  commerce  languished  ;  while  that  of  Eng- 
land, now  neutral  amidst  all  these  quarrels,  flourished  ex- 
tremely. The  prince  of  Orange,  however,  ambitious  of 
glory,  urged  another  campaign ;  and  it  commenced  accord- 
ingly- .  . 

In  the  middle  of  February,  Louis  carried  Valenciennes  by 
storm,  and  laid  siege  to  St.  Omer  and  Cambray.  William, 
though  full  of  activity,  courage,  and  skill,  w^as,  nevertheless, 
almost  always  unsuccessful  in  the  field,  and  never  more  so 

*  The  council  of  Spain  gave  De  Ruyter  the  title  and  letters  patent  of  duke, 
Thelatter  arrived  in  Holland  after  his  death;  and  his  children,  with  true  re- 
publican spirit,  refused  to  adopt  the  title. 

V2 


246  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1678 

than  in  tliis  campaign.  Several  towns  fell  almost  in  his 
sight ;  and  he  was  completely  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of 
mount  Cassel,  by  the  duke  of  Orleans  and  marshal  Luxem- 
bourg. But  the  period  for  another  peace  was  now  approach- 
ing. Louis  offered  fair  terms  for  the  acceptance  of  the  United 
Provinces  at  the  congress  of  Nimeguen,  April,  1678,  as  he 
now  considered  his  chief  enemies  Spain  and  the  empire,  who 
had  at  first  only  entered  into  the  war  as  auxiliaries.  He  was, 
no  doubt,  principally  impelled  in  his  measures  by  the  mar- 
riage of  the  prince  of  Orange  with  the  lady  Mary,  eldest 
daugliter  of  the  duke  of  York,  and  heir  presumptive  to  the 
English  crown,  which  took  place  on  the  23d  of  October,  to 
the  great  joy  of  both  the  Dutch  and  English  nations.  Charles 
was  at  this  moment  the  arbiter  of  the  peace  of  Europe ;  and 
though  several  fluctuations  took  place  in  his  policy  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months,  as  the  urgent  wishes  of  the  parlia- 
ment and  the  large  presents  of  Louis  differently  actuated 
him,*  still  the  wiser  and  more  just  course  prevailed,  and  he 
finally  decided  the  balance  by  vigorously  declaring  his  reso- 
lution for  peace ;  and  the  treaty  was  consequently  signed  at 
Nimeguen,  on  the  10th  of  August,  1678.  The  prince  of 
Orange,  from  private  motives  of  spleen,  or  a  most  unjustifiable 
desire  for  fighting,  took  the  extraordinary  measure  of  attack- 
ing the  French  troops  under  Luxembourg,  near  Mons,  on  the 
very  day  afler  the  signing  of  this  treaty.  He  must  have 
Imown  it,  even  though  it  were  not  officially  notified  to  him  : 
and  he  certainly  had  to  answer  for  all  the  blood  so  wantonly 
spilt  in  the  sharp  though  undecisive  action  which  ensued.f 
Spain,  abandoned  to  her  fate,  was  obliged  to  make  the  best 
terms  she  could ;  and  on  the  17th  of  September  she  also  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  France,  on  conditions  entirely  favorable 
to  the  latter  power. { 


CHAP.  XX. 
1678—1713. 

FROM  THE   PEACE   OP   NIMEGUEN   TO   THE   PEACE   OF   UTRECHT. 

A  FEW  years  passed  over  after  this  period,  without  the  oc- 
currence of  any  transaction  sufficiently  important  to  require 
a  mention  here.  Each  of  the  powers  so  lately  at  war  fol- 
lowed the  various  bent  of  their  respective  ambition.  Charles 
of  England  was  sufficiently  occupied  by  disputes  with  parlia- 
ment, and  the  discovery,  fabrication,  and  punishment  of  plots, 

*  Dalrymple's  App.  p.  1]2.  f  Hume,  &c.  1  De  Neny. 


1685.  DEATH  OF  CHARLES  II.  247 

real  or  pretended.  Louis  XIV.,  by  a  stretch  of  audacious 
pride  hitherto  unknown,  arrogated  to  himself  the  supreme 
power  of  regulating-  the  rest  of  Europe,  as  if  all  the  other 
princes  were  his  vassals.  He  established  courts,  or  chambers 
of  reunion  as  they  were  called,  in  Metz  and  Brisac,  wliich 
cited  princes,  issued  decrees,  and  authorized  spoliation,  in  the 
most  unjust  and  arbitrary  manner.*  Louis  chose  to  award  to 
himself  Luxembourg,  Chiny,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
Brabant  and  Flanders. f  He  marched  a  considerable  army 
into  Belgium,  which  the  Spanish  governors  were  unable  to 
oppose.  The  prince  of  Orange,  who  labored  incessantly  to 
excite  a  confederacy  among  the  other  powers  of  Europe 
against  the  unwarrantable  aggressions  of  France,  was  unable 
to  arouse  his  countrymen  to  actual  war;  and  w^as  forced,  in- 
stead of  gaining  the  glory  he  longed  for,  to  consent  to  a  truce 
for  twenty  years,  which  the  states-general,  now  wholly  i)a- 
cific  and  not  a  little  cowardly,  were  too  happy  to  obtain  from 
France.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain  gladly  entered 
into  a  like  treaty.J  The  fact  was,  that  the  peace  of  Nime- 
guen  had  disjointed  the  great  confederacy  which  William 
had  so  successfully  brought  about ;  and  the  various  powers 
were  laid  utterly  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  imperious  Louis, 
who  for  a  while  held  the  destinies  of  Europe  in  his  hands. 

Charles  II.  died  most  unexpectedly  in  the  year  1685 ;  and 
his  obstinately  bigoted  and  unconstitutional  successor,  James 
II.,  seemed,  during  a  reign  of  not  four  years'  continuance,  to 
rush  wilfully  headlong  to  ruin.  During  this  period,  the 
prince  of  Orange  had  maintained  a  most  circumspect  and  un- 
exceptionable line  of  conduct ;  steering  clear  of  all  interfe- 
rence with  Englisli  affairs  ;  giving  offence  to  none  of  the  po- 
litical factions;  and  observing  in  every  instance  the  duty  and 
regard  which*  he  owed  to  his  father-in-law.  J  Duruig  Mon- 
mouth's invasion  he  had  dispatched  to  James's  assistance  six 
regiments  of  British  troops  which  were  in  the  Dutch  service, 
and  he  offered  to  take  the  command  of  the  king's  forces 
against  the  rebels.  It  was  from  the  application  of  James 
himself  that  William  took  any  part  in  English  affairs  ;||  for 
lie  was  more  widely  and  much  more  congenially  employed 
in  the  establishment  of  a  fresh  league  against  France.  Louis 
had  aroused  a  new  feeling  throughout  Protestant  Europe,  by 
tlie  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  refugees  whom 
he  had  driven  from  their  native  country,  inspired  in  those  in 
which  they  settled,  hatred  of  his  persecution  as  well  as  alarm 
of  his  power.     Holland  now  entered  into  all  the  view^s  of  the 

*  Hume.  f  De  Neny.  t  r>u  Mont,  Corps  Dip),  t.  vii. 

§  Hume.  If  Hume. 


248  HISTORY    OP   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1688. 

prince  of  Orange.  By  his  immense  influence  he  succeeded 
in  forming  the  great  confederacy  called  the  League  of  Augs- 
bourg,  to  which  the  emperor,  Spain,  and  almost  every  Euro- 
pean power  but  England,  became  parties.* 

James  gave  the  prince  reason  to  believe  that  he  too  would 
join  in  this  great  project,  if  William  w^ould  in  return  concur 
in  his  views  of  domestic  tyranny ;  but  William  wisely  refused. 
James,  much  disappointed,  and  irritated  by  the  moderation 
which  showed  his  own  violence  in  such  striking  contrast,  ex- 
pressed his  displeasure  against  the  prince,  and  against  the 
Dutch  generally,  by  various  vexatious  acts.  William  resolved 
to  maintain  a  high  attitude;  and  many  applications  were 
made  to  him  by  the  most  considerable  persons  in  England  for 
relief  against  James's  violent  measures,  and  which  there  was 
but  one  method  of  making  eflectual.f  That  method  was 
force.  But  as  long  as  the  princess  of  Orange  was  certain 
of  succeeding  to  the  crown  on  her  father's  death,  William 
hesitated  to  join  in  an  attempt  that  might  possibly  have  failed 
and  lost  her  her  inheritance.  But  the  birth  of  a  son,  which, 
in  giving  James  a  male  heir,  destroyed  all  hope  of  redress  for 
the  kingdom,  decided  the  wavering,  and  rendered  the  deter- 
mined desperate.  The  prince  chose  the  time  for  his  enter- 
prise with  the  sagacity,  arranged  its  plan  with  the  prudence, 
and  put  it  into  execution  with  the  vigor,  which  were  habitual 
qualities  of  his  mind. 

Louis  XIV.,  menaced  by  the  League  of  Augsbourg,  had 
resolved  to  strike  the  first  blow  against  the  allies.  He  in- 
vaded Germany ;  so  that  the  Dutch  preparations  seemed  in 
the  first  instance  intended  as  measures  of  defence  against  the 
progress  of  the  French.  But  Louis's  envoy  at  the  Hague 
could  not  be  long  deceived.  He  gave  notice  to  his  master, 
who  in  his  turn  warned  James.  But  that  infatuated  monarch 
not  only  doubted  the  intelligence,  but  refused  the  French 
king's  oiFers  of  assistance  and  co-operation.  On  the  21st  of 
Octoljer,  the  prince  of  Orange,  with  an  army  of  14,000  men, 
and  a  fleet  of  500  vessels  of  all  kinds,  set  sail  from  Helvoet- 
sluys;  and  afl:er  some  delays  from  bad  weather,  he  safely 
landed  his  army  in  Torbay,  on  tlie  5th  of  November,  1688. J 
The  desertion  of  James's  best  friends ;  his  own  consternation, 
flight,  seizure,  and  second  escape;  and  the  solemn  act  by 
which  he  was  deposed  ;  were  the  rapid  occurrences  of  a  few 
weeks :  and  thus  the  grandest  revolution  that  England  had 
ever  seen  was  happily  consummated.  Without  entering  here 
on  legislative  reasonings  or  party  sophisms,  it  is  enough  to 

*  Hume.  t  D'Avaiix.  X  Hume. 


1689.  ENGLISH    REVOLUTION.  249 

record  the  act  itself;  and  to  say,  in  reference  to  our  more  im- 
mediate subject,  that  without  the  assistance  of  Holland  and 
her  glorious  chief,  England  might  have  still  remained  en- 
slaved, or  have  had  to  purchase  liberty  by  oceans  of  blood. 
By  the  bill  of  settlement,  the  crown  was  conveyed  jointly  to 
the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  the  sole  administration  of 
government  to  remain  in  the  prince ;  and  the  new  sovereigns 
were  proclaimed  on  the  23d  of  February,  1689.  The  con- 
vention, which  had  arranged  this  important  point,  annexed  to 
the  settlement  a  declaration  of  rights,  by  which  the  powers 
of  royal  prerogative  and  the  extent  of  popular  privilege  were 
defined  and  guarantied.* 

William,  now  become  king  of  England,  still  preserved  his 
title  of  stadtholder  of  Holland ;  and  presented  the  singular 
instance  of  a  monarchy  and  a  republic  being  at  the  same 
time  governed  by  the  same  individual.  But  whether  as  a 
king  or  a  citizen,  William  was  actuated  by  one  grand  and 
powerful  principle,  to  which  every  act  of  private  administra- 
tion was  made  subservient,  although  it  certainly  called  for  no 
sacrifice  that  was  not  required  for  the  political  existence  of 
the  two  nations  of  which  he  was  the  head.  Inveterate  oppo- 
sition to  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.  was  tliis  all-absorbing  mo- 
tive. A  sentiment  so  mighty  left  William  but  little  time  for 
inferior  points  of  government,  and  every  thing  but  that  seems 
to  have  irritated  and  disgusted  him.  He  was  soon  again  on 
the  Continent,  the  chief  theatre  of  his  efforts.  He  put  him- 
self in  front  of  the  confederacy  which  resulted  from  the  con- 
gress of  Utrecht  in  1690.  He  took  the  command  of  the  allied 
army ;  and  till  the  hour  of  his  death,  he  never  ceased  his  in- 
defatigable course  of  hostility,  whether  in  the  camp  or  the 
cabinet,  at  the  head  of  the  allied  armies,  or  as  the  guiding 
spirit  of  the  councils  which  gave  tliem  force  and  motion. 

Several  campaigns  were  expended,  and  bloody  combats 
fought,  almost  all  to  the  disadvantage  of  William,  whose 
genius  for  war  was  never  seconded  by  that  good  fortune  which 
60  often  decides  the  fate  of  battles  in  defiance  of  all  the  cal- 
culations of  talent.  But  no  reverse  had  power  to  shake  the 
constancy  and  courage  of  William.  He  always  appeared  as 
formidable  after  defeat  as  he  v.as  before  action.  His  con- 
querors gained  little  but  the  honor  of  the  day.  Fleurus, 
Steinkerk,  Herwinde,  were  successively  the  scenes  of  his 
evil  fortune,  and  the  sources  of  his  fame.  His  retreats  were 
master-strokes  of  vigilant  activity  and  profound  combinations. 
Many  eminent  sieges  took  place  during  this  war.  Among 
other  towns.  Mens  and  Namur  were  taken  by  the  French, 


250  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1697. 

and  Huy  by  the  allies ;  and  the  army  of  marshal  Villeroi 
bombarded  Brussels  during  three  days,  in  August,  1695,  with 
such  fury  that  the  town-house,  fourteen  churches,  and  4000 
houses,  were  reduced  to  ashes.  The  year  following  this  event 
saw  another  undecisive  campaign.  During  the  continuance 
of  this  war,  the  naval  transactions  present  no  grand  results. 
Du  Bart,  a  celebrated  adventurer  of  Dunkirk,  occupies  the 
leading  place  in  those  affairs,  in  which  he  carried  on  a.  desul- 
tory but  active  warfare  against  the  Dutch  and  English  fleets, 
and  generally  with  great  success. 

All  the  nations  which  had  taken  part  in  so  many  wars,  were 
now  becoming  exhausted  by  the  contest,  but  none  so  much 
so  as  France.  The  great  despot  who  had  so  long  wielded  the 
energies  of  that  country  with  such  wonderful  splendor  and 
success,  found  that  his  unbounded  love  of  dominion  was  gradu- 
ally sapping  all  the  real  good  of  his  people,  in  chimerical 
schemes  of  universal  conquest.  England,  though  with  much 
resolution  voting  new  supplies,  and  in  every  way  upholding 
William  in  his  plans  for  the  continuance  of  war,  was  rejoiced 
when  Louis  accepted  the  mediation  of  Charles  XT.  king  of 
Sweden,  and  agreed  to  concessions  which  made  peace  feasi- 
ble.* The  emperor  and  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  were  less  satis- 
fied with  those  concessions :  but  every  thing  was  finally  ar- 
ranged to  meet  the  general  views  of  the  parties,  and  negotia- 
tions were  opened  at  Ryswick.  The  death  of  the  king  of 
Sweden,  and  the  minority  of  his  son  and  successor,  the  cele- 
brated Charles  XIL,  retarded  them  on  ]X)ints  of  form  for  some 
time.  At  length,  on  the  20t]i  of  September,  1697,  the  articles 
of  the  treaty  were  subscribed  by  the  Dutch,  English,  Spanish, 
and  French  ambassadors. f  The  treaty  consisted  of  seventeen 
articles.  The  French  king  declared  he  would  not  disturb  or 
disquiet  tlie  king  of  Great  Britain,  whose  title  he  now  for  the 
first  time  acknowledged.  Between  Franco  and  Holland  were 
declared  a  general  armistice,  perpetual  amity,  a  mutual  resti- 
tution of  towns,  a  reciprocal  renunciation  of  all  pretensions 
uix)n  each  other,  and  a  treaty  of  commerce  which  was  imme- 
diately put  into  execution.  Tlius,  after  this  long,  expensive, 
and  sanguinary  war,  things  were  established  just  on  the  foot- 
ing they  had  been  by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen ;  and  a  great, 
though  unavailable  lesson,  read  to  the  world  on  the  fiitility 
and  wickedness  of  those  quarrels  in  which  tlie  personal  am- 
bition of  kings  leads  to  tlie  misery  of  the  people.  Had  the 
allies  been  true  to  each  other  throughout,  I^ouis  would  cer* 
tainly  have  been  reduced  much  lower  than  lie  now  was.  His 

*  Smollett,  vol.  i.  pp.  316,  317.  t  De  Neny. 


1700.  WAR    OF    SUCCESSION.  251 

pride  was  humbled,  and  his  encroachments  stx)pped.  But  the 
sufferings  of  the  various  countries  engaged  in  the  war,  were 
too  generally  reciprocal  to  make  its  result  of  any  material 
benefit  to  either.  The  emperor  held  out  for  a  while,  encour- 
aged by  the  great  victory  gained  by  his  general,  prince  Eu- 
gene of  Savoy,  over  the  Turks  at  Zenta  in  Hungary ;  but  he 
finally  acceded  to  tlie  terms  offered  by  France ;  the  peace, 
therefore,  became  general,  but  unfortunately  for  Europe,  of 
very  short  duration. 

France,  as  if  looking  forward  to  the  speedy  renewal  of  hos- 
tilities, still  kept  her  armies  undisbanded.  Let  the  foresight 
of  her  politicians  have  been  what  it  might,  this  negative 
proof  of  it  was  justified  by  events.  The  king  of  Spain,  a 
weak  prince,  without  any  direct  heir  for  his  possessions,  con- 
sidered himself  authorized  to  dispose  of  their  succession  by 
will.  The  leadmg  powers  of  Europe  thought  otherwise,  and 
took  this  right  upon  themselves.*  Charles  died  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1700,  and  thus  put  the  important  question  to  the 
test.  By  a  solemn  testament  he  declared  Philip  duke  of  An- 
jou,  second  son  of  the  dauphin,  and  grandson  of  Louis  XIV., 
his  successor  to  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.!  Louis 
immediately  renounced  his  adherence  to  the  treaties  of  par- 
tition, executed  at  the  Hague  and  in  London,  in  1698  and 
1700,  and  to  which  he  had  been  a  contracting  party ;  and 
prepared  to  maintain  the  act  by  wliich  the  last  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Charles  V.  bequeathed  the  possessions  of  Spain  and 
the  Indies  to  the  family  which  had  so  long  been  the  inveterate 
enemy  and  rival  of  his  own. 

The  emperor  Leopold,  on  his  part,  prepared  to  defend  his 
claims ;  and  thus  commenced  the  new  war  between  him  and 
France,  which  took  its  name  from  the  succession  which  formed 
the  object  of  dispute.  Hostilities  were  commenced  in  Italy, 
where  prince  Eugeno,  the  conqueror  of  tlie  Turks,  com- 
manded for  Leopold,  and  every  day  made  for  himself  a  still 
more  brilliant  reputation.  Louis  sent  his  grandson  to  Spain 
to  take  possession  of  the  inheritance,  for  which  so  hard  a 
fight  was  yet  to  be  maintained,  with  the  striking  expression 
at  parting — "  My  child,  there  are  no  longer  any  Pyrenees  !'* 
an  expression  most  happily  unprophetic  for  the  future  inde- 
pendence of  Europe,  for  the  moral  force  of  the  barrier  has 
long  existed  after  the  expiration  of  the  family  compact  which 
was  meant  to  deprive  it  of  its  force. 

Louis  prepared  to  act  vigorously.  Among  other  measures, 
he  caused  part  of  the  Dutch  army  that  was  quartered  in 

♦  De  Neny.  f  Du  Mont,  Corps  Diplora. 


252  HISTORY   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  170r|| 

Luxembourg'  and  Brabant  to  be  suddenly  made  prisoners  of 
war,  because  they  would  not  own  Philip  V.  as  king  of  Spain. 
The  states-general  were  dreadfully  alarmed,  immediately 
made  the  required  acknowledgment,  and  in  consequence  had 
their  soldiers  released.*  They  quickly  reinforced  their  gar- 
risons, purchased  supplies,  solicited  foreign  aid,  and  prepared 
for  the  worst  that  might  happen.  They  wrote  to  king  Wil- 
liam, professing  the  most  inviolable  attachment  to  England ; 
and  he  met  their  application  by  warm  assurances  of  support, 
and  an  immediate  reinforcement  of  three  regiments. 

William  followed  up  these  measures  by  the  formation  of 
the  celebrated  treaty  called  the  Grand  Alliance,  by  which 
England,  the  States,  and  the  emperor  covenanted  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  pretensions  of  the  latter  to  the  Spanish  monarchy.f 
William  was  preparing,  in  spite  of  his  declining  health,  to  take 
his  usual  lead  in  the  military  operations  now  decided  on,  and 
almost  all  Europe  was  again  looking  forward  to  his  guidance, 
when  he  died  on  the  8th  of  March,  1701,  leaving  his  great 
plans  to  receive  their  execution  from  still  more  able  adepts  in 
the  art  of  war. 

William's  character  has  been  traced  by  many  hands.  In 
his  capacity  of  king  of  England,  it  is  not  our  province  to 
judge  him  in  this  place.  As  stadtholder  of  Holland,  he  merits 
unqualified  praise.  Like  his  great  ancestor  William  L,  whom 
he  more  resembled  than  any  other  of  his  race,  he  saved  the 
country  in  a  time  of  such  imminent  peril  that  its  abandon- 
ment seemed  the  only  resource  left  to  the  inhabitants,  who 
preferred  self-exile  to  slavery.  All  his  acts  were  certainly 
merged  in  the  one  overwhelming  object  of  a  great  ambition 
— that  noble  quality,  which,  if  coupled  with  the  love  of  coun- 
try, is  the  very  essence  of  true  heroism.  William  was  the 
last  of  that  illustrious  line  which  for  a  century  and  a  half  had 
filled  Europe  with  admiration.  He  never  had  a  child ;  and 
being  himself  an  only  one,  his  title  as  prince  of  Orange  passed 
into  another  branch  of  the  family.  He  left  his  cousin  prince 
Prison  of  Nassau,  the  stadtholder  of  Friesland,  his  sole  and 
universal  heir,  and  appointed  the  states-general  his  executors.  J 

William's  death  filled  Holland  with  mourning  and  alarm. 
The  meeting  of  the  states-general  after  this  sad  intelligence 
was  of  a  most  affecting  description;  but  William,  like  all 
master-minds,  had  left  the  mantle  of  his  inspiration  on  his 
friends  and  followers.  Heinsius  the  grand  pensionary  fol- 
lowed up  the  views  of  the  lamented  stadtholder  with  con- 
siderable energy,  and  was  answered  by  the  unanimous  exer- 

*  Smollett.  t  De  Neny,  t.  i.  p.  201.  |  Smollett. 


1702.  .MARLBOROUGH    AND    EUGENE.  253 

tions  of  the  country.  Strong  assurances  of  support  from 
queen  Amie,  William's  successor,  still  furtlier  encouraged  the 
republic,  which  now  vigorously  prepared  for  w^ar.  But  it  did 
not  lose  this  occasion  of  recurring  to  the  form  of  government 
of  1650.  No  new  stadtholder  was  now  appointed ;  the  supreme 
authority  being  vested  in  the  general  assembly  of  the  states, 
and  the  active  direction  of  affairs  confided  to  the  grand  pen- 
sionary. This  departure  from  the  form  of  government  which 
had  been  on  various  occasions  proved  to  be  essential  to  the 
safety,  although  at  all  times  hazardous  to  the  independence, 
of  the  States,  was  not  attended  with  any  evil  consequences. 
The  factions  and  the  anarchy  which  had  before  been  the  con- 
sequence of  the  course  now  adopted,  were  prevented  by  the 
potent  influence  of  national  fear  lest  the  enemy  might  triumph, 
and  crush  the  hopes,  tlie  jealousies,  and  the  enmities  of  all 
parties  in  one  general  ruin.  Thus  the  common  danger  awoke 
a  common  interest,  and  the  splendid  successes  of  her  allies 
kept  Holland  steady  in  the  career  of  patriotic  energy  which 
had  its  rise  in  the  dread  of  her  redoubtable  foe. 

The  joy  in  France  at  William's  death  was  proportionate  to 
the  grief  it  created  in  Holland ;  and  the  arrogant  confidence 
of  lx)uis  seemed  to  know  no  bounds.  "I  will  punish  these 
audacious  merchants,''  said  he,  with  an  air  of  disdain,  when 
he  read  the  manifesto  of  Holland ;  not  foreseeing  that  those 
he  aflfected  to  despise  so  much  would,  ere-long,  command  in 
a  great  measure  the  destinies  of  his  crown.  Queen  Anne 
entered  upon  the  w-ar  w4th  masculine  intrepidity,  and  main- 
tained it  witli  heroic  energy.  Eflbrts  were  made  by  the  Eng- 
lish ministry  and  the  states-general  to  mediate  between  the 
kings  of  Sweden  and  Poland.  But  Charles  XII.,  enamoured 
of  glory,  and  bent  on  the  one  great  object  of  his  designs 
against  Russia,  would  listen  to  nothing  that  might  lead  him 
from  his  immediate  career  of  victory.*  Many  other  of  the 
northern  princes  were  withheld,  by  various  motives,  from  en- 
tering into  the  contest  with  France,  and  its  whole  brunt  de- 
volved on  the  original  members  of  the  grand  alliance.  The 
generals  who  carried  it  on  were  Marlborough  and  prince 
Eugene.  The  former,  at  its  commencement  an  earl,  and  sub- 
sequently raised  to  the  dignity  of  duke,  was  declared  gene- 
ralissimo of  the  Dutch  and  English  forces.  He  was  a  man  of 
most  powerful  genius,  both  as  warrior  and  politician.  A  pupil 
of  the  great  Turenne,  his  exploits  left  those  of  his  master  in 
the  shade.  No  commander  ever  possessed  in  a  greater  degree 
the  faculty  of  forming  vast  designs,  and  of  carrying  them 

*  Voltaire. 

w 


254  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1702. 

into  eff'ect  with  consummate  skill;  no  one  displayed  more 
coolness  and  courage  in  action,  saw  with  a  keener  eye  the 
errors  of  the  enemy,  or  knew  better  how  to  profit  by  success. 
He  never  laid  siege  to  a  town  that  he  did  not  take,  and  never 
fought  a  battle  that  he  did  not  gain.* 

Prince  Eugene  joined  to  the  highest  order  of  personal 
bravery  a  profound  judgment  for  the  grand  movements  of  war, y 
and  a  capacity  for  the  most  minute  of  the  minor  details  om 
which  their  successful  issue  so  often  depends.  United  in  the 
same  cause,  these  two  great  generals  pursued  their  course 
without  the  least  misunderstanding.  At  the  close  of  each  of 
those  successive  campaigns,  in  which  they  reaped  such  a  full 
harvest  of  renown,  they  retired  together  to  the  Hague,  to  ar- 
range, in  the  profoundest  secrecy,  the  plans  for  the  next 
year's  operations,  with  one  other  person,  who  formed  the  great 
point  of  union  between  them,  and  completed  a  triumvirate 
without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  political  affairs.  This  third 
was  Heinsius,  one  of  those  great  men  produced  by  the  re- 
public whose  names  are  tantamount  to  the  most  detailed  eulo- 
gium  for  talent  and  patriotism.  Every  enterprise  projected 
by  the  confederates  was  deliberately  examined,  rejected,  or 
approved  by  these  three  associates,  whose  strict  union  of  pur- 
pose, disowning  all  petty  rivalry,  formed  the  centre  of  coun- 
sels and  the  source  of  circumstances  finally  so  fatal  to  France.f 
Louis  XIV.,  now  sixty  years  of  age,  could  no  longer  him- 
self command  his  armies,  or  probably  did  not  wish  to  risk  the 
reputation  he  was  conscious  of  having  gained  by  the  advice 
and  services  of  Turenne,  Conde,  and  Luxembourg.  Louvois, 
too,  was  dead ;  and  Colbert  no  longer  managed  his  finances. 
A  council  of  rash  and  ignorant  ministers  hung  like  a  dead 
weight  on  the  talent  of  the  generals  who  succeeded  the  great 
men  above  mentioned.  Favor  and  not  merit  too  often  decided 
promotion,  and  lavished  command.  Vendome,  Villars,  Bouf- 
flers,  and  Berwick,  were  set  aside,  to  make  way  for  Villeroi, 
Tallard,  and  Marsin,  men  every  way  inferior. 

The  war  began  in  1702  in  Italy,  and  Marlborough  opened 
his  first  campaign  in  Brabant  also  in  that  year.  For  several 
succeeding  years  the  confederates  pursued  a  career  of  bril- 
liant success,  the  details  of  which  do  not  properly  belong  to 
this  work.  A  mere  chronology  of  celebrated  battles  would 
be  of  little  interest,  and  the  pages  of  English  history  abound 
in  records  of  those  deeds.  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde, 
and  Malplaquet,  are  names  that  speak  for  themselves,  and  tell 
their  own  tale  of  glory.     The  utter  humiliation  of  France 

*  Hist,  (le  Voltaire,  Charles  XII.  p.  112.  t  Voltaire. 


1711.  WAR    RENEWED.  255 

was  the  result  of  events,  in  which  the  undying  fame  of  Eng- 
land for  inflexible  perseverance  and  unbounded  generosity- 
was  joined  in  the  strictest  union  with  that  of  Holland ;  and 
the  impetuous  valor  of  the  worthy  successor  to  the  title  of 
prince  of  Orange  was,  on  many  occasions,  particularly  at 
Malplaquet,  supported  by  the  devotion  and  gallantry  of  the 
Dutch  contingent  in  the  allied  armies.  The  naval  affairs  of 
Holland  oflfered  nothing  very  remarkable.  The  States  had 
always  a  fleet  ready  to  support  the  English  in  their  enter- 
prises ;  but  no  eminent  admiral  arose  to  rival  the  renown  of 
Rooke,  Byng,  Benbow,  and  others  of  their  allies.  The  first 
of  those  admirals  took  Gibraltar,  which  has  ever  since  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  England.  The  great  earl  of 
Peterborough  carried  on  the  war  with  splendid  success  in 
Portugal  and  Spain,  supported  occasionally  by  the  English 
fleet  under  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  and  that  of  Holland  under 
admirals  Allemonde  and  Wapenaer.* 

During  the  progress  of  the  war,  the  haughty  and  long-time 
imperial  Louis  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  humiliation  that 
excited  a  compassion  so  profound  as  to  prevent  its  own  open 
expression — the  most  galling  of  all  sentiments  to  a  proud 
mind.  In  the  year  1709  he  solicited  peace  on  terms  of  most 
abject  submission.  The  states-general,  under  the  influence 
of  the  duke  of  Marlborougii  and  prince  Eugene,  rejected  all 
his  supplications,  retorting  unsparingly  the  insolent  harshness 
with  which  he  had  formerly  received  similar  proposals  from 
them.  France,  roused  to  renewed  exertions  by  the  insulting 
treatment  experienced  by  her  humiliated  but  still  haughty 
despot,  made  prodigious  but  vain  eflbrts  to  repair  her  ruinous 
losses.  In  the  following  year  I^uis  renewed  his  attempts  to 
obtain  some  tolerable  conditions;  offering  to  renounce  his 
grandson,  and  to  comply  with  all  tlie  former  demands  of  the 
confederates.!  Even  these  overtures  were  rejected ;  Holland 
and  England  appearing  satisfied  with  nothing  short  of,  what 
was  after  all  impracticable,  the  total  destruction  of  the  great 
power  whicli  Louis  had  so  long  proved  to  be  incompatible 
with  their  welfare.  The  war  still  went  on ;  and  the  taking 
of  Bouchain  on  the  30th  of  August,  1711,  closed  the  almost 
unrivalled  military  career  of  Marlborough,  by  the  success 
of  one  of  his  boldest  and  best  conducted  exploits.]:  Party  in- 
trigue had  accomplished  what,  in  court  parlance,  is  called  the 
disgrace,  but  which,  in  the  language  of  common  sense,  means 
only  the  dismissal,  of  this  great  man.  The  new  ministry, 
who  hated  the  Dutch,  now  entered  seriously  into  negotiations 
with  France.     The  queen  acceded  to  these  views,  and  sent 

*  Smollet.  t  Wem.  X  li^^m. 


256  HISTORY    OF   THE    IVETHERLAISDS.  1713. 

Special  envoys  to  communicate  with  the  court  of  Versailles. 
The  states-general  found  it  nnpossible  to  continue  hostilities 
if  England  withdrew  from  the  coalition ;  conferences  were 
consequently  opened  at  Utrecht  in  the  month  of  January, 
1712.  England  took  the  important  station  of  arbiter  in  the 
great  question  there  debated.  The  only  essential  conditions 
which  she  demanded  individually,  were  the  renunciation  of 
all  claims  to  the  crown  of  France  by  Philip  V.,  and  the  de- 
molition of  the  harbor  of  Dunkirk.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  more  readily  acceded  to,  as  the  great  battles  of  Almanza 
and  Villaviciosa,  gained  by  Philip's  generals  the  dukes  of 
Berwick  and  Vendome,  had  steadily  fixed  him  on  the  throne 
of  Spain — a  point  still  more  firmly  secured  by  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Joseph  I.,  son  of  Leopold,  and  the  elevation  of 
his  brother  Charles,  Philip's  competitor  for  the  crown  of 
Spain,  to  the  imperial  dignity,  by  the  title  of  Charles  VI. 

The  peace  was  not  definitively  signed  until  the  11th  of  April, 
1713 ;  and  France  obtained  far  better  conditions  than  those 
which  were  refused  her  a  few  years  previously.  The  Bel- 
gian provinces  were  given  to  the  new  emperor,  and  must 
henceforth  be  called  the  Austrian  instead  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands.  The  gold  and  the  blood  of  Holland  had  been 
profusely  expended  during  this  contest;  it  might  seem  for 
no  positive  results :  but  the  exhaustion  produced  to  every  one 
of  the  other  belligerents  was  a  source  of  peace  and  prosperity 
to  the  republic.  Its  commerce  was  re-established ;  its  finan- 
cial resources  recovered  their  level ;  and  altogether  we  must 
fix  on  the  epoch  now  before  us  as  that  of  its  utmost  point  of 
influence  and  greatness.  France,  on  the  contrary,  was  now 
reduced  from  its  palmy  state  of  almost  European  sovereignty 
to  one  of  the  deepest  misery ;  and  its  monarch,  in  his  old 
age,  found  little  left  of  his  former  power  but  those  records  of 
poetry,  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  which  tell  pos- 
terity of  his  magnificence,  and  the  splendor  of  whicli  throw 
his  faults  and  his  misfortunes  into  the  shade. 

Tlie  great  object  now  to  be  accomplished  by  the  United 
Provinces,  was  the  regulation  of  a  distinct  and  guarantied 
line  of  frontier  between  the  republic  and  France.  This  ob- 
ject had  become  by  degrees,  ever  since  the  peace  of  Munster, 
a  fundamental  maxim  of  their  politics.  Tlie  interposition  of 
the  Belgian  provinces  between  the  republic  and  France  was 
of  serious  inconvenience  to  the  former  in  this  point  of  view. 
It  was  made  tlie  subject  of  a  special  article  in  "  the  grand 
alliance."  In  the  year  1707  it  was  particularly  discussed 
between  England  and  the  States,  to  the  great  discontent  of 
the  emperor,  wlio  was  far  from  wishing  its  definitive  settle- 


1713.  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT.  257 

ment.*  But  it  was  now  become  an  indispensable  item  in  the 
total  of  important  measures  whose  accomplishment  was  called 
for  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  Conferences  were  opened  on 
this  sole  question  at  Antwerp  in  the  year  1714 ;  and,  after 
protracted  and  difficult  discussions,  the  treaty  of  the  Barrier 
was  concluded  on  the  15th  of  November,  1715.  For  the 
twenty-six  articles  contained  in  this  important  document  we 
must  refer  to  the  work  the  most  valuable  on  such  points,  and 
already  so  often  quoted,  f 

This  treaty  was  looked  on  with  an  evil  eye  in  the  Austrian 
Netherlands.  The  clamor  was  great  and  general ;  jealousy 
of  the  commercial  prosperity  of  Holland  being  the  real  mo- 
tive. Long  negotiations  took  place  on  the  subject  of  the 
treaty;  and  in  December,  1718,  the  republic  consented  to 
modify  some  of  the  articles.  The  pragmatic  sanction,  pub- 
lished at  Vienna  in  1713  by  Charles  VI.,  regulated  the  suc- 
cession to  all  the  imperial  hereditary  possessions;  and,  among 
the  rest,  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  But  this  ar- 
rangement, though  guarantied  by  the  chief  powers  of  Europe, 
was,  in  the  sequel,  little  respected,  and  but  indifferently  exe- 
cuted, j: 


CHAP.  XXL 
1713—1795. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT  TO  THE  INCORPORATION  OF  BEL- 
GIUM AVITH  THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC. 

During  a  period  of  thirty  years  following  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  the  republic  enjoyed  the  unaccustomed  blessing  of 
profound  peace.  While  the  discontents  of  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  on  the  subject  of  the  treaty  of  the  Barrier  were 
in  debate,  the  quadruple  alliance  was  formed  between  Hol- 
land, England,  France,  and  the  emperor,  for  reciprocal  aid 
against  all  enemies,  foreign  and  domestic. 5  It  was  in  virtue 
of  this  treaty  that  the  pretender  to  the  English  throne  re- 
ceived orders  to  remove  from  France ;  and  the  states-general 
about  the  same  time  arrested  the  Swedish  ambassador,  baron 
Gortz,  whose  intrigues  excited  some  suspicion.  The  death 
of  liOuis  XIV.  had  once  more  changed  the  political  system 
of  Europe ;  and  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  fertile  in  negotiations  and  alliances  in  which  we  have 

*  De  Neny,  t.  i.  p.  141,  t  See  Dc  Neny's  M6inoiros,  t.  i.  p.  142,  &c. 

i  De  Neny.  §  Smollett. 

W3 


258  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1732. 

at  present  but  little  direct  interest.  The  rights  of  the  repub- 
lic were  in  all  instances  respected ;  and  Holland  did  not  cease 
to  be  considered  as  a  power  of  the  first  distinction  and  conse- 
quence. The  establishment  of  an  East  India  company  at 
Ostend,  by  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  in  1722,  was  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  disquiet  to  the  United  Provinces,  and  the  most 
likely  to  lead  to  a  rupture.  But,  by  the  treaty  of  Hanover  in 
1726,  the  rights  of  Holland  resulting  from  the  treaty  of  Mun- 
ster  were  guarantied ;  and  in  consequence  the  emperor  abol- 
ished the  company  of  his  creation,  by  the  treaty  of  Seville  in 
1729,  and  that  of  Vienna  in  1731. 

The  peace  which  now  reigned  in  Europe  allowed  the  Uni- 
ted Provinces  to  direct  their  whole  efforts  towards  the  reform 
of  those  internal  abuses  resulting  from  feudality  and  fanati- 
cism. Confiscations  were  reversed,  and  property  secured 
throughout  the  republic.  ..It  received  into  its  protection  the 
persecuted  sectarians  of  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary ; 
and  the  tolerant  wisdom  which  it  exercised  in  these  measures 
gives  the  best  assurance  of  its  justice  and  prudence  in  one  of 
a  contrary  nature,  forming  a  solitary  exception  to  them.  This 
was  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  whose  dangerous  and  de- 
structive doctrines  had  been  long  a  warrant  for  this  salutary 
example  to  the  Protestant  states  of  Europe. 

In  the  year  1732  the  United  Provinces  were  threatened 
with  imminent  peril,  which  accident  alone  prevented  from 
becoming  fatal  to  their  very  existence.  It  was  perceived  that 
the  dikes,  which  had  for  ages  preserved  the  coasts,  were  in 
many  places  crumbling  to  ruin,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  ex- 
penditure of  money  and  labor  devoted  to  their  preservation. 
By  chance  it  was  discovered  that  the  beams,  piles,  and  otlier 
timber  works  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  dikes,  were 
eaten  through  in  all  parts  by  a  species  of  sea-worm  hitherto 
unknown.  The  terror  of  the  people  was,  as  may  be  supposed, 
extreme.  Every  possible  resource  was  applied  which  could 
remedy  the  evil ;  a  hard  frost  providentially  set  in  and  de- 
stroyed the  formidable  reptiles  ;*  and  the  country  was  thus 
saved  from  a  danger  tenfold  greater  than  that  involved  in  a 
dozen  wars. 

The  peace  of  Europe  was  once  more  disturbed  in  1733. 

Poland,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain,  were  all  embarked  in 

the  new  war.    Holland  and  England  stood  aloof;  and  another 

family  alliance  of  great  consequence  drew  still  closer  than 

.  ever  the  bonds  of  union  between  them.  The  young  prince  of 

f  Orange,  who  in  1728  had  been  elected  stadtholder  of  Gronin- 

I  gen  and  Guelders,  in  addition  to  that  of  Friesland  which  had 

*  Smollett. 


1743.  BATTLE  OF  DETTINGEN.  259 

been  enjoyed  by  his  father,  had  in  the  year  1734  married  the 
princess  Anne,  daughter  of  George  II.  of  England ;  and  by 
thus  adding  to  the  consideration  of  the  house  of  Nassau,  had 
opened  a  field  for  the  recovery  of  all  its  old  distinctions. 

The  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  in  October,  1740, 
left  his  daughter,  the  archduchess  Maria  Theresa,  heiress  of 
his  throne  and  possessions.  Young,  beautiful,  and  endowed 
with  qualities  of  the  highest  order,  she  was  surrounded  with 
enemies  whose  envy  and  ambition  would  have  despoiled  her 
of  her  splendid  rights.  Frederick  of  Prussia,  surnamed  the 
Great,  in  honor  of  his  abilities  rather  than  his  sense  of  justice, 
the  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  the  kings  of  Spain 
and  Sardinia,  all  pressed  forward  to  the  spoliation  of  an  in- 
heritance which  seemed  a  fair  play  for  all  comers.  But  Maria 
Theresa,  first  joining  her  husband,  duke  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
in  her  sovereignty,  i)ut  without  prejudice  to  it,  under  the  title 
of  co-regent,  took  an  attitude  truly  heroic.  When  every  thing 
seemed  to  threaten  the  dismemberment  of  her  states,  she 
threw  herself  upon  the  generous  fidelity  of  her  Hungarian 
subjects  with  a  dignified  resolution  that  has  few  examples. 
There  was  imperial  grandeur  even  in  her  appeal  to  their 
compassion.  The  results  were  electrical ;  and  the  whole  tide 
of  fortune  was  rapidly  turned. 

England  and  Holland  were  the  first  to  come  to  the  aid  of 
the  young  and  interesting  empress.  George  II.,  at  tlie  head 
of  his  army,  gained  the  victory  of  Dettingen,  in  support  of  her 
quarrel,  in  1743 ;  the  states-general  having  contributed  20,000 
men  and  a  large  subsidy  to  her  aid.  Louis  XV.  resolved  to 
^irow  his  whole  influence  into  the  scale  against  these  gener- 
/bus  eflfbrts  in  the  princess's  favor ;  and  he  invaded  the  Austrian 
/  Netherlands  in  the  following  year.  Marshal  Saxe  commanded 
under  him,  and  at  first  carried  every  thing  before  him.  Hol- 
land, having  furnished  20,000  troops  and  six  ships  of  war  to 
George  II.  on  the  invasion  of  the  young  pretender,  was  little 
in  a  state  to  oppose  any  formidable  resistance  to  the  enemy 
that  threatened  her  own  frontiers.  The  republic,  wholly  at- 
tached for  so  long  a  period  to  pursuits  of  peace  and  commerce, 
had  no  longer  good  generals  nor  effective  armies ;  nor  could 
it  even  put  a  fleet  of  any  importance  to  sea.  Yet  with  all 
these  disadvantages  it  would  not  yield  to  the  threats  nor  the 
demands  of  France ;  resolved  to  risk  a  new  war  rather  than 
succumb  to  an  enemy  it  had  once  so  completely  humbled  and 
given  the  law  to.  - 

Conferences  were  opened  at  Breda,  but  interrupted  almost 
as  soon  as  commenced.  Hostilities  w^ere  renewed.  The 
memorable  battle  of  Fontenoy  was  offered  and  gloriously  fought 


260  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1751. 

by  the  allies ;  accepted  and  spendidly  won  by  the  French. 
Never  did  the  English  and  Dutch  troops  act  more  nobly  in 
concert  than  on  this  remarkable  occasion.  The  valor  of  the 
French  was  not  less  conspicuous ;  and  the  success  of  the  day 
was  in  a  great  measure  decided  by  the  Irish  battalions,  sent, 
by  the  lamentable  politics  of  those  and  much  later  days,  to 
swell  the  ranks  and  gain  the  battles  of  England's  enemies. 
Marshal  Saxe  followed  up  his  advantage  the  following  year, 
taking  Brussels  and  many  other  towns.  Almost  the  whole  of 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  being  now  in  the  power  of  Louis 
XV.,  and  the  United  Provinces  again  exposed  to  invasion  and 
threatened  with  danger,  they  had  once  more  recourse  to  the 
old  expedient  of  the  elevation  of  the  house  of  Orange,  which 
in  times  of  imminent  peril  seemed  to  present  a  never-failing 
palladium.  Zealand  was  the  first  to  give  the  impulsion ;  the 
other  provinces  soon  followed  the  example ;  and  William  IV. 
was  proclaimed  stadtholder  and  captain-general,  amidst  the 
almost  unanimous  rejoicings  of  all.  These  dignities  were  soon 
after  declared  hereditary  both  in  the  male  and  female  line  of 
succession  of  the  house  of  Orange  Nassau. 

The  year  1748  saw  the  termination  of  the  brilliant  cam- 
paigns of  Louis  XV.  during  this  bloody  war  of  eight  years' 
continuance.  The  treaty  of  Aix-]a-Chapelle,  definitively 
signed  on  the  18th  of  October,  put  an  end  to  hostilities;  Maria 
Theresa  was  established  in  her  rights  and  power;  and  Europe 
saw  a  fair  balance  of  the  nations,  which  gave  promise  of  se- 
curity and  peace.  But  the  United  Provinces,  when  scarcely 
recovering  from  struggles  which  had  so  checked  their  pros- 
perity, were  employed  in  new  and  universal  grief  and  anxiety 
by  the  deatli  of  their  young  stadtholder,  which  happened  at 
the  Hague,  October  13,  1751.  He  had  long  been  kept  out 
of  the  government,  though  by  no  means  deficient  in  the  talents 
suited  to  his  station.  His  son,  William  V.,  aged  but  three 
years  and  a  half,  succeeded  him,  under  the  guardianship  of 
his  mother,  Anne  qf  England,  daughter  of  George  II.  a  prin- 
cess represented  to  be  of  a  proud  and  ambitious  temper,  who 
immediately  assumed  a  high  tone  of  authority  in  the  state.* 

The  war  of  seven  years,  w^hich  agitated  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, and  deluged  its  plains  with  blood,  was  almost  the  only 
one  in  which  the  republic  was  able  to  preserve  a  strict  neu- 
trality throughout.  But  this  happy  state  of  tranquillity  was 
not,  as  on  former  occasions,  attended  by  that  prodigious  in- 
crease of  commerce,  and  that  accumulation  of  wealth,  which 
had  so  often  astonished  the  world.  Differing  with  England 
on  the  policy  which  led  the  latter  to  weaken  and  humiliate 

*  Horace  Walpole's  Mem.  vol.  i.  p.  179, 180. 


1772.  SEVEN  years'  war.  261 

France,  jealousies  sprung"  up  between  the  two  countries,  and 
Dutch  commerce  became  the  object  of  the  most  vexatious 
and  injurious  efforts  on  the  part  of  England.  Remonstrance 
was  vain ;  resistance  impossible ;  and  the  decline  of  the  re- 
public hurried  rapidly  on.  The  Hanseatic  towns,  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  the  northern  states  of  Europe,  and  France 
itself,  all  entered  into  the  rivalry  with  Holland,  in  which, 
however,  England  carried  off*  the  most  important  prizes.  Sev- 
eral private  and  petty  encounters  took  place  between  the 
vessels  of  England  and  Holland,  in  consequence  of  the  pre- 
tensions of  tlie  former  to  the  right  of  search ;  and  had  the 
republic  possessed  the  ability  of  former  periods,  and  the 
talents  of  a  Tromp  or  a  De  Ruyter,  a  new  war  would  no 
doubt  have  been  the  result  But  it  was  forced  to  submit ;  and 
a  degrading  but  irritating  tranquillity  was  the  consequence 
for  several  years ;  the  national  feelings  receiving  a  salvo  for 
home-decline  by  some  extension  of  colonial  settlements  in 
the  East,  in  which  the  island  of  Ceylon  was  included. 

In  the  midst  of  this  inglorious  state  of  things,  and  the  do- 
mestic abundance  which  was  the  only  compensation  for  the 
gradual  loss  of  national  influence,  the  installation  of  William 
V.  in  1766 ;  his  marriage  with  the  princess  of  Prussia,  niece 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1768 ;  and  the  birth  of  two  sons,  the 
eldest  on  the  24th  of  August,  1772 ;  successively  took  place. 
Magnificent  fetes  celebrated  these  events ;  the  satisfied  citi- 
zens little  imagining,  amid  their  indolent  rejoicings,  the  dis- 
mal futurity  of  revolution  and  distress  which  was  silently  but 
rapidly  preparing  for  their  country. 

Maria  Theresa,  reduced  to  widowhood  by  the  death  of  her 
husband,  whom  she  had  elevated  to  the  imperial  dignity  by 
the  title  of  Francis  I.,  continued  for  a  while  to  rule  singly 
her  vast  possessions ;  and  had  profited  so  little  by  the  suffer- 
ings of  her  own  early  reign,  that  she  joined  in  the  iniquitous 
dismemberment  of  Poland,  which  has  left  an  indelible  stain 
on  her  memory,  and  on  that  of  Frederick  of  Prussia  and 
Catharine  of  Russia.  In  her  own  dominions  she  was  adored ; 
and  her  name  is  to  this  day  cherished  in  Belgium  among  the 
dearest  recollections  of  the  people. 

The  impulsion  given  to  the  political  mind  of  Europe  by  the 
revolution  in  North  America  was  soon  felt  in  the  Nether- 
lands. The  wish  for  reform  was  not  merely  confirmed  to  the 
people.  A  memorable  instance  was  offered  by  Joseph  II.,  son 
and  successor  of  Maria  Theresa,  that  sovereigns  were  not 
only  susceptible  of  rational  notions  of  change,  but  that  the 
infection  of  radical  extravagance  could  penetrate  even  to  the 
imperial  crown.     Disgusted  by  the  despotism  exercised  by 


i 


262  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1784. 

the  clergy  of  Belgium,  Joseph  commenced  his  reign  by  mea- 
sures that  at  once  roused  a  desperate  spirit  of  hosfility  in  the 
priesthood,  and  soon  spread  among  the  bigoted  mass  of  the 
people,  who  were  wholly  subservient  to  their  will.  Miscal- 
culating his  own  power,  and  undervaluing  that  of  the  priests, 
the  emperor  issued  decrees  and  edicts  with  a  sweeping  vio- 
lence that  shocked  every  prejudice  and  roused  every  passion 
perilous  to  the  country.  Toleration  to  the  Protestants,  eman- 
cipation of  the  clergy  from  the  papal  yoke,  reformation  in  the 
system  of  theological  instruction,  were  among  the  wholesale 
measures  of  the  emperor's  enthusiasm,  so  imprudently  at- 
tempted and  so  virulently  opposed. 

But  ere  the  deep-sown  seeds  of  bigotry  ripened  to  revolt, 
or  produced  the  fruit  of  active  resistance  in  Belgium,  Holland 
had  to  endure  the  mortification  of  another  war  with  England. 
The  republic  resolved  on  a  futile*  imitation  of  the  northern 
powers,  who  had  adopted  the  difficult  and  anomalous  system 
of  an  armed  neutrality,  for  the  prevention  of  English  domina- 
tion on  the  seas.  The  right  of  search,  so  proudly  established 
by  this  power,  was  not  likely  to  be  wrenched  from  it  by  mani- 
festoes or  remonstrances ;  and  Holland  was  not  capable  of  a 
more  effectual  warfare.  In  the  year  1781,  St.  Eustache, 
Surinam,  Essequibo,  and  Demerara,  were  taken  by  British 
valor ;  and  in  the  following  year  several  of  the  Dutch  colo- 
nies in  the  East,  well  fortified  but  ill  defended,  also  fell  into 
the  hands  of  England.  Almost  the  whole  of  those  colonies, 
the  remnants  of  prodigious  power  acquired  by  such  incalcu- 
lable instances  of  enterprise  and  courage,  were  one  by  one 
assailed  and  taken.  But  this  did  not  suffice  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  English  objects  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  It  was 
also  resolved  to  deprive  Holland  of  the  Baltic  trade.  A  squad- 
ron of  seven  vessels,  commanded  by  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  was 
encountered  on  the  Dogher  Bank  by  a  squadron  of  Dutch 
ships  of  the  same  force  under  admiral  Zoutman.  An  action 
of  four  hours  was  maintained  with  all  the  ancient  courage 
which  made  so  many  of  the  memorable  sea-fights  between 
Tromp,  De  Ruyter,  Blake,  and  Monk,  drawn  battles.  A 
storm  separated  the  combatants,  and  saved  the  honor  of  each ; 
for  both  had  sufl^ered  alike,  and  victory  had  belonged  to 
neither.  The  peace  of  1784  terminated  this  short,  but,  to 
Holland,  fatal  war ;  the  two  latter  years  of  which  had  been, 
in  the  petty  warfare  of  privateering,  most  disastrous  to  the 
commerce  of  the  republic.  Negapatam  on  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  Indian  seas,  were 
ceded  to  England,  who  occupied  the  other  various  colonies 
taken  during  the  war. 


1787.  SPIRIT    OF    REVOLUTION.  263 

Opinion  was  now  rapidly  opening  out  tx)  that  spirit  of  in- 
tense inquiry  which  arose  in  France,  and  threatened  to  sweep 
before  it  not  only  all  that  was  corrupt,  but  every  thing"  that 
tended  to  corruption.  It  is  in  the  very  essence  of  all  kinds  of 
power  to  have  that  tendency,  and,  if  not  checked  by  salutary 
means,  to  reach  that  end.  But  the  reformers  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, new  in  the  desperate  practice  of  revolutions,  seeing*  its 
necessity,  but  ignorant  of  its  nature,  neither  did  nor  could 
place  bounds  to  the  careering"  whirlwind  that  they  raised. 
^The  well-meaning  but  intemperate  changes  essayed  by  Jo- 
seph II.  in  Belgium  had  a  considerable  share  in  the  develop- 
ment of  free  principles,  although  they  at  first  seemed  only  to 
excite  the  resistance  of  bigotry  and  strengthen  the  growtli 
of  superstition.  Holland  was  always  alive  to  those  feelings 
of  resistance  to  established  authority  which  characterize  re- 
publican opinions ;  and  the  general  discontent  at  the  result 
of  the  war  with  England  gave  a  good  excuse  to  the  pretended 
patriotism  which  only  wanted  change,  while  it  professed  re- 
form. The  stadtholder  saw  clearly  the  storm  which  was 
gathering,  and  which  menaced  his  power.  Anxious  for  the 
present,  and  uncertain  for  the  future,  he  listened  to  the  sug- 
gestions of  England,  and  resolved  to  secure  and  extend  by 
foreign  force  the  rights  of  which  he  risked  the  loss  from  do- 
mestic faction. 

In  the  divisions  which  were  now  loudly  proclaimed  among 
the  states,  in  favor  of,  or  opposed  to  the  house  of  Orange,  the 
people,  despising  all  new  theories  which  they  did  not  com- 
prehend, took  open  part  with  the  family  so  closely  connected 
with  every  practical  feeling  of  good  which  their  country  had 
yet  known.  The  states  of  Holland  soon  proceeded  to  mea- 
sures of  violence.  Resolved  to  limit  the  power  of  the  stadt- 
holder, they  deprived  him  of  the  command  of  the  garrison  of 
the  Hague,  and  of  all  the  other  troops  of  the  province ;  and, 
shortly  afterwards,  declared  him  removed  from  all  his  em- 
ployments. The  violent  disputes  and  vehement  discussions 
consequent  upon  this  measure,  throughout  the  republic,  an- 
nounced an  inevitable  commotion.  The  advance  of  a  Prus- 
sian army  towards  the  frontiers  inflamed  the  passions  of  one 
party,  and  strengthened  the  confidence  of  the  other.  An  in- 
cident which  now  happened  brought  about  the  crisis  even 
sooner  than  was  expected.  The  princess  of  Orange  left  her 
palace  at  Loo  to  repair  to  the  Hague ;  and  travelling  with 
great  simplicity  and  slightly  attended,  she  was  arrested  and 
detained  by  a  military  post  on  the  frontiers  of  the  province 
of  Holland.  The  neighboring  magistrates  of  the  town  of 
Woesden  refused  her  permission  to  continue  her  journey, 


264  HISTORY    OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  1787. 

and  forced  her  to  return  to  Loo  under  such  surveillance  as 
was  usual  with  a  prisoner  of  state.  The  stadtholder  and  the 
English  ambassador  loudly  complained  of  this  outrage.  The 
complaint  was  answered  by  the  immediate  advance  of  the 
duke  of  Brunswick,  witli  20,000  Prussian  soldiers.  Some 
demonstrations  of  resistance  were  made  by  the  astonished 
party  whose  outrageous  conduct  had  provoked  the  measure ; 
but  in  three  weeks'  time  the  whole  of  the  republic  was  in  per- 
fect obedience  to  the  authority  of  the  stadtholder,  who  re- 
sumed all  his  functions  of  chief  magistrate,  with  the  additional 
influence  which  was  sure  to  result  from  a  vain  and  unjusti- 
fiable attempt  to  reduce  his  former  power.* 

By  this  time,  the  discontent  and  agitation  in  Belgium  had 
attained  a  most  formidable  height.  The  attempted  reforma- 
tion in  religion  and  judicial  abuses  persisted  in  by  the  empe- 
ror, were  represented,  by  a  party  whose  existence  was  com- 
promised by  reform,  as  notliing  less  than  sacrilege  and  tyranny, 
and  blindly  rejected  by  a  people  still  totally  unfitted  for  ra- 
tional enlightenment  in  points  of  faith,  or  practices  of  civili- 
zation. Remonstrances  and  strong  complaints  were  soon 
succeeded  by  tumultuous  assemblages  and  open  insurrection. 
A  lawyer  of  Brussels,  named  Vander  Noot,  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  malcontents.  The  states-general  of  Brabant 
declared  the  new  measures  of  the  emperor  to  be  in  opposition 
to  the  constitution  and  privileges  of  the  country.  The  other 
Belgian  provinces  soon  followed  this  example.  The  prince 
Albert  of  Saxe-Teschen,  and  the  archduchess  Maria  Theresa, 
his  wife,  were  at  this  period  joint  governors-general  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands.  At  the  burst  of  rebellion,  they  at- 
tempted to  temporize ;  but  this  only  strengthened  the  revolu- 
tionary party,  while  the  emperor  wholly  disapproved  their 
measures,  and  recalled  them  to  Vienna. 

Count  Murray  was  now  named  governor-general ;  and  it 
was  evident  that  the  future  fate  of  the  provinces  was  to  de- 
pend on  the  issue  of  civil  war.  Count  Trautmansdorfl^,  the 
imperial  minister  at  Brussels,  and  general  D' Alton,  who  com- 
manded the  Austrian  troops,  took  a  high  tone,  and  evinced  a 
peremptory  resolution.  The  soldiery  and  the  citizens  soon 
came  into  contact  on  many  points;  and  blood  was  spilt  at 
Brussels,  Mechlin,  and  Antwerp. 

The  provincial  states  were  convoked,  for  the  purpose  of 
voting  the  usual  subsidies.     Brabant,  after  some  opposition, 

*  We  regret  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  Mr.  Ellis's  interesting  but  unpub- 
lished work,  detailing  the  particulars  of  this  revolution.  The  former  perusal 
of  a  copy  of  it  only  leaves  a  recollection  of  its  admirable  style  and  the  lead- 
ing facts,  but  not  of  the  details  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  justify  more  than 
a  general  reference  to  the  work  itself. 


1788.  INSURRECTION  AND  CONFEDERATION.  265 

consented ;  but  the  states  of  Hainault  unanimously  refused 
the  vote.  The  emperor  saw,  or  supposed,  that  the  necessity 
for  decisive  measures  was  now  inevitable.  *  The  refractory 
states  were  dissolved,  and  arrests  and  imprisonments  were 
multiplied  in  all  quarters.  Vander  Noot,  who  had  escaped  to 
England,  soon  returned  to  the  Netherlands,  and  established  a 
committee  at  Breda,  which  conferred  on  him  the  imposing 
title  of  agent  plenipotentiary  of  the  people  of  Brabant.  He 
hoped,  under  this  authority,  to  interest  the  English,  Prussian, 
and  Dutch  governments  in  favor  of  his  views ;  but  his  pro- 
posals were  coldly  received :  Protestant  states  had  little  sym- 
pathy for  a  people  whose  resistance  was  excited,  not  by  tyran- 
nical efforts  against  freedom,  but  by  broad  measures  of  civil 
and  religious  reformation ;  the  only  fault  of  which  was  their 
attempted  application  to  minds  wholly  incompetent  to  com- 
prehend their  value. 

Left  to  themselves,  the  Belgians  soon  gave  a  display  of 
that  energetic  valor  which  is  natural  to  them,  and  which 
would  be  entitled  to  still  greater  admiration  had  it  been 
evinced  in  a  worthier  cause.  During  the  fermentation  which 
led  to  a  general  rising  in  the  provinces,  on  the  impulse  of 
fanatic  zeal,  the  truly  enlightened  portion  of  the  people  con- 
ceived  the  project  of  raising,  on  the  ruins  of  monkish  super- 
stition and  aristocratical  power,  an  edifice  of  constitutional 
freedom.  Vonck,  also  an  advocate  of  Brussels,  took  the  lead 
in  this  splendid  design ;  and  he  and  his  friends  proved  them- 
selves to  have  reached  the  level  of  that  true  enlightenment 
which  distinguished  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  But 
the  Vonckists,  as  they  were  called,  formed  but  a  small  mi- 
nority compared  with  the  besotted  mass ;  and,  overwhelmed 
by  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand,  and  despotism  on  the  other, 
they  were  unable  to  act  effectually  for  the  public  good.  Van- 
der Mersch,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  and  a  man  of  considerable 
talents,  who  had  raised  himself  from  the  ranks  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  regiment,  and  had  been  formed  in  the  school  of  the 
seven  years'  war,  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  pa- 
triot forces.  Joseph  II.  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  his 
sovereignty  in  Brabant ;  and  hostilities  soon  commenced,  by 
a  regular  advance  of  the  insurgent  army  upon  that  province, 
Vander  Mersch  displayed  consummate  ability  in  this  crisis, 
where  so  much  depended  upon  the  prudence  of  the  military 
chief  He  made  no  rash  attempt,  to  which  commanders  are 
sometimes  induced  by  reliance  upon  the  enthusiasm  of  a 
newly  revolted  people.  He,  however,  took  the  earliest  safe 
opportunity  of  coming  to  blows  with  the  enemy ;  and,  having 
cleverly  induced  the  Austrians  to  follow  him  into  the  very 
X 


266  HISTORY   OF   TIIE    NETHERLANDS.  179ll 

streets  of  the  town  of  Turnhout,  he  there  entered  on  a  bloody 
contest,  and  finally  defeated  the  imperialists  with  considera- 
ble loss.  He  next  manoeuvred  with  great  ability,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  making  his  way  into  the  province  of  Flanders,  took 
Ghent  by  assault,  and  soon  reduced  Bruges,  Ypres,  and  Os- 
tend.  At  the  news  of  these  successes,  the  governors-general 
quitted  Brussels  in  all  haste.  The  states  of  Flanders  assem- 
bled, in  junction  with  those  of  Brabant.  Both  provinces  were 
freed  from  the  presence  of  the  Austrian  troops.  Vander  Noot 
and  the  committee  of  Breda  made  an  entrance  into  Brussels 
with  all  the  pomp  of  royalty :  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
following  year  (1790)  a  treaty  of  union  was  signed  by  the 
seven  revolted  provinces,  now  formed  into  a  confederation 
under  the  name  of  the  United  Belgian  States.* 

All  the  hopes  arising  from  these  brilliant  events,  were  soon, 
however,  to  be  blighted  by  the  scorching  heats  of  faction, 
Joseph  II.,  whose  temperament  appears  to  have  been  too  sen- 
sitive to  support  the  shock  of  disappointment  in  plans  which 
sprung  from  the  purest  motives,  saw,  in  addition  to  this  suc- 
cessful insurrection  against  his  power,  his  beloved  sister,  the 
queen  of  France,  menaced  with  the  horrors  of  an  inevitable 
revolution.  His  over-sanguine  expectations  of  successfully 
rivalling  the  glory  of  Frederick  and  Catharine,  and  the  ill 
success  of  his  war  against  the  Turks,  all  tended  to  break  down 
his  enthusiastic  spirit,  which  only  wanted  the  elastic  resist- 
ance of  fortitude  to  have  made  him  a  great  character.  He 
for  some  time  sunk  into  a  profound  melancholy ;  and  expired 
on  the  20th  of  January,  1791,  accusing  his  Belgian  subjects 
of  having  caused  his  premature  death. 

Leopold,  the  successor  of  his  brother,  displayed  much  sa- 
gacity and  moderation  in  the  measures  which  he  adopted  for 
the  recovery  of  the  revolted  provinces :  but  their  internal 
disunion  was  the  best  ally  of  the  new  emperor.  The  violent 
party  which  now  ruled  at  Brussels,  had  ungratefully  forgot- 
ten the  eminent  services  of  Vander  Mersch,  and  accused  him 
of  treachery,  merely  from  his  attachment  to  the  noble  views 
and  principles  of  the  widely-increasing  party  of  the  Vonck- 
ists.  Induced  by  the  hope  of  reconciling  the  opposing  parties, 
he  left  his  army  in  Namur,  and  imprudently  ventured  into 
the  power  of  general  Schoenfeld,  who  commanded  the  troops 
of  the  states.  Vander  Mersch  was  instantly  arrested  and 
thrown  into  prison,  w^here  he  lingered  for  months,  until  set 
free  by  the  overthrow  of  the  faction  he  had  raised  to  power  if 
but  he  did  not  recover  his  liberty  to  witness  the  realization 
of  his  hopes  for  that  of  his  country.     The  states-general,  in 

♦  De  Smet.  t  Feller's  Journal. 


1792.      WAR    BETWEEN   FRANCE   AND    AUSTRIA.  267 

their  triumph  over  all  that  was  truly  patriotic,  occupied  them- 
selves solely  in  contemptible  labors  to  establish  the  monkish 
absurdities  which  Joseph  had  suppressed.  The  overtures  of 
the  new  emperor  were  rejected  with  scorn ;  and,  as  might 
be  expected  from  this  combination  of  bigotry  and  rashness, 
the  imperial  troops  under  general  Bender  marched  quietly  to 
the  conquest  of  the  whole  country  ;  town  after  town  opening 
their  gates,  while  Vander  Noot  and  his  partisans  betook  them- 
selves to  rapid  and  disgraceful  flight.  On  the  10th  of  De- 
cember, 1791,  the  ministers  of  the  emperor  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  those  of  England,  Russia,  and  Holland  (which 
powers  guarantied  its  execution,)  by  which  Leopold  granted 
an  amnesty  for  all  past  offences,  and  confirmed  to  all  his  re- 
covered provinces  their  ancient  constitution  and  privileges : 
and,  thus  returning  under  the  domination  of  Austria,  Bel- 
gium saw  its  best  chance  for  successfully  following  the  noble 
example  of  the  United  Provinces  paralyzed  by  the  short- 
sighted bigotry  which  deprived  the  national  courage  of  all 
moral  force. 

Leopold  enjoyed  but  a  short  time  the  fruits  of  his  well- 
measured  indulgence :  he  died  almost  suddenly,  March  1, 
1792 ;  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  II.,  whose  fate 
it  was  to  see  those  provinces  of  Belgium,  which  had  cost  his 
ancestors  so  many  struggles  to  maintain,  wrested  for  ever 
from  the  imperial  power.  Belgium  presented  at  this  period 
an  aspect  of  paramount  interest  to  the  world ;  less  owing  to 
its  intrinsic  importance,  than  to  its  becoming  at  once  the 
point  of  contest  between  the  contending  powers,  and  the 
theatre  of  the  terrible  struggle  between  republican  France 
and  the  monarchs  she  braved  and  battled  with.  The  whole 
combinations  of  European  policy  were  staked  on  the  question 
of  the  French  possession  of  this  country.* 

This  war  between  France  and  Austria  began  its  earliest 
operations  on  the  very  first  days  after  the  accession  of  Francis 
II.  The  victory  of  Jemappes,  gained  by  Dumouriez,  was  the 
first  great  event  of  the  campaign.  The  Austrians  were  on 
all  sides  driven  out.  Dumouriez  made  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Brussels  on  the  13th  of  November :  and  immediately 
after  the  occupation  of  this  town,  the  whole  of  Flanders,  Bra- 
bant, and  Hainault,  with  the  other  Belgian  provinces,  were 
subjected  to  France.  Soon  afterwards  several  pretended 
deputies  from  the  Belgian  people  hastened  to  Paris,  and  im- 
plored the  convention  to  grant  them  a  share  of  that  liberty 
and  equality  which  was  to  confer  such  inestimable  blessings 

*  Abb6  de  Pr adt,  de  la  Belgique,  p.  6. 


) 


268  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1794. 

on  France.     Various  decrees  were  issued  in  consequence^ 
and  after  the  mockery  of  a  public  choice,  hurried  on  in  seve-J 
ral  of  the  towns  by  hired  jacobins  and  well-paid  patriots,  the 
incorporation  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  with  the  French 
republic  was  formally  pronounced.* 

The  next  campaign  destroyed  this  whole  fabric  of  revolu- 
tion. Dumouriez,  beaten  at  Nerwinde  by  the  prince  of  Saxe 
Cobourg,  abandoned  not  only  his  last  year's  conquest,  but  fled 
from  his  own  army  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  on  a 
foreign  soil,  and  leave  his  reputation  a  doubtful  legacy  to  his- 
tory. Belgium,  once  again  in  the  possession  of  Austria,  was 
placed  under  the  government  of  the  archduke  Charles,  the 
emperor's  brother,  who  was  destined  to  a  very  brief  continu- 
ance in  this  precarious  authority. 

During  this  and  the  succeeding  year  the  war  was  continued 
with  unbroken  perseverance  and  a  constant  fluctuation  in  its 
results.  In  the  various  battles  which  were  fought,  and  the 
sieges  which  took  place,  the  English  army  was,  as  usual,  in 
the  foremost  ranks,  under  the  duke  of  York,  second  son  of 
George  III.  The  prince  of  Orange,  at  the  head  of  the  Dutch 
troops,  proved  his  inheritance  of  the  valor  which  seems  inse- 
parable from  the  najne  of  Nassau.  The  archduke  Charles 
laid  the  foundation  of  his  subsequent  high  reputation.  The 
emperor  Francis  himself  fought  valiantly  at  the  head  of  his 
troops.  But  all  the  coalesced  courage  of  these  princes  and 
their  armies  could  not  effectually  stop  the  progress  of  the  re- 
publican arms.  The  battle  of  Fleurus  rendered  the  French 
completely  masters  of  Belgium ;  and  the  representatives  of 
the  city  of  Brussels  once  more  repaired  to  the  national  con- 
vention of  France,  to  solicit  the  reincorporation  of  the  two 
countries.  This  was  not,  however,  finally  pronounced  till  the 
1st  of  October,  1795,  by  which  time  the  violence  of  an  arbi- 
J;rary  government  had  given  the  people  a  sample  of  what  they 
,fivere  to  expectf  The  Austrian  Netherlands  and  the  province 
Ipf  Liege  were  divided  into  nine  departments,  forming  an  in- 
ijtegral  part  of  the  French  republic ;  and  this  new  state  of 
things  was  consolidated  by  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  signed 
at  Leoben  in  Styria,  between  the  French  general  Bonaparte 
and  the  archduke  Charles,  and  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio  on  the  17th  of  October,  1797. 

♦  De  Smet.  |  De  Snaet. 


1794.         THE  BATAVIAN  REPUBLIC.  269 

CHAP.  XXII. 
1794--1813. 

FROM  THE  INVASION  OF  HOLLAND  BY  THE  FRENCH  TO  THE 
RETURN  OF  THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGE. 

While  the  fate  of  Belgium  was  decided  on  the  plains  of 
Fleurus,  Pichegru  prepared  to  carry  the  triumphant  arms  of 
France  into  the  heart  of  Holland.  He  crossed  the  Meuse  at 
the  head  of  100,000  men,  and  soon  gained  possession  of  most 
of  the  chief  places  of  Flanders.  An  unusually  severe  winter 
was  setting  in ;  but  a  circumstance  which  in  common  cases 
retards  the  operations  of  war  was,  in  the  present  instance,  the 
means  of  hurrying  on  the  conquest  on  which  the  French 
general  was  bent.  The  arms  of  the  sea,  which  had  hitherto 
been  the  best  defences  of  Holland,  now  became  solid  masses 
of  ice ;  battle-fields,  on  which  the  soldiers  manoeuvred  and 
the  artillery  thundered,  as  if  the  laws  of  the  elements  were 
repealed  to  hasten  the  fall  of  the  once  proud  and  long  flour- 
ishing republic.  Nothing  could,  arrest  the  ambitious  ardor  of 
the  invaders.  The  duke  of  York  and  his  brave  army  resisted 
to  the  utmost;  but,  borne  down  by  numbers,  he  was  driven 
from  position  to  position.  Batteries,  cannons,  and  magazines, 
were  successively  taken ;  and  Pichegru  was  soon  at  the  term 
of  his  brilliant  exploits. 

^  But  Holland  speedily  ceased  to  be  a  scene  of  warfare.  The 
discontented  portion  of  the  citizens,  now  the  majority,  re- 
i  joiced  to  retaliate  the  revolution  of  1787  by  another,  received 
the  French  as  liberators.  Reduced  to  extremity,  yet  still 
capable  by  the  aid  of  his  allies  of  making  a  long  and  des- 
perate resistance,  the  stadtholder  took  the  nobler  resolution 
of  saving  his  fellow-citizens  from  the  horrors  of  prolonged 
warfare.  He  repaired  to  the  Hague ;  presented  himself  in 
the  assembly  of  the  states-general ;  and  solemnly  deposited  in 
their  hands  the  exercise  of  the  supreme  power,  which  he 
found  he  could  no  longer  wield  but  to  entail  misery  and  ruin 
on  his  conquered  country.  After  this  splendid  instance  of  true 
patriotism  and  rare  virtue,  he  quitted  Holland  and  took  ref- 
uge in  England.  The  states-general  dissolved  a  national  as- 
sembly installed  at  the  Hague ;  and,  the  stadtholderate  abol- 
ished, the  United  Provinces  now  changed  their  form  of  gov- 
ernment, their  long-cherished  institutions,  and  their  very 
name,  and  were  christened  the  Batavian  Republic. 

Assurances  of  the  most  flattering  nature  were  profusely 
showered  on  the  new  state,  by  the  sister  republic  which  had 
X2 


270  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1797. 

effected  this  new  revolution.  But  the  first  measure  of  re- 
generation was  the  necessity  of  paying  for  the  recovered  in- 
dependence, which  was  effected  for  the  sum  of  100,000,000 
florins.*  The  new  constitution  was  almost  entirely  modelled 
on  that  of  France,  and  the  promised  independence  soon  be- 
came a  state  of  deplorable  suffering  and  virtual  slavery.  In- 
calculable evils  were  the  portion  of  Holland  in  the  part  which 
she  was  forced  to  take  in  the  war  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. Her  marine  was  nearly  annihilated,  and  some  of  her 
most  valuable  possessions  in  the  Indies  ravished  from  her  by 
the  British  arms.  She  was  at  the  same  time  obliged  to  cede 
to  her  ally  the  whole  of  Dutch  Flanders,  Maestricht,  Venloo, 
and  their  dependencies ;  and  to  render  free  and  common  to 
both  nations  the  navigation  of  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  and  the 
Scheldt. 

The  internal  situation  of  the  unfortunate  republic  was  de- 
plorable. Under  the  weight  of  an  enormous  and  daily  in- 
creasing debt,  all  the  resources  of  trade  and  industry  were 
paralyzed.  Universal  misery  took  place  of  opulence,  and 
not  even  the  consolation  of  a  free  constitution  remained  to 
the  people.  They  vainly  sought  that  blessing  from  each  new 
government  of  the  country  whose  destinies  they  followed, 
but  whose  advantages  they  did  not  share.  They  saw  them- 
selves successively  governed  by  the  states-general,  a  national 
assembly,  and  the  directory.  But  these  ephemeral  authorities 
had  not  sufficient  weight  to  give  the  nation  domestic  happi- 
ness, nor  consideration  among  the  other  powers. 

On  the  11th  of  October,  1797,  the  English  admiral  Sir 
Adam  Duncan,  with  a  superior  force,  encountered  the  Dutch 
fleet  under  De  Winter  off  Camperdown ;  and  in  spite  of  the 
bravery  of  the  latter  he  was  taken  prisoner,  with  nine  ships 
of  the  line  and  a  frigate.  An  expedition  on  an  expensive 
scale  was  soon  after  fitted  out  in  England,  to  co-operate  with 
a  Russian  force  for  the  establishment  of  the  house  of  Orange. 
The  Holder  was  the  destination  of  this  armament,  which  was 
commanded  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie.  The  duke  of  York 
soon  arrived  in  the  Texel  with  a  considerable  reinforcement. 
A  series  of  severe  and  well-contested  actions  near  Bergen 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  allies,  and  the  abandonment  of  the 
enterprise ;  the  only  success  of  which  was  the  capture  of  the 
remains  of  the  Dutch  fleet,  which  was  safely  conveyed  to 
England. 

•^  From  this  period  the  weight  of  French  oppression  became 
-.  fCvery  day  more  intolerable  in  Holland.  Ministers,  generals, 
^knd  every  other  species  of  functionary,  with  swarms  of  minor 

*  Ciiad. 


1806.  LOUIS    BONAPARTE.  271 

tyrants,  while  treating  the  country  as  a  conquered  province, , 
deprived  it  of  all  share  in  the  brilliant  though  chequered 
glories  gained  by  that  to  which  it  was  subservient.  The 
Dutch  were  robbed  of  national  independence  and  personal 
freedom.  While  the  words  'liberty'  and  'equality*  were 
everywhere  emblazoned,  the  French  ambassador  assumed  an 
almost  oriental  despotism.  The  language  and  forms  of  a  free 
government  were  used  only  to  sanction  a  foreign  tyranny ; 
and  the  Batavian  republic,  reduced  to  the  most  hopeless  and 
degraded  state,  was  in  fact  but  a  forced  appendage  chained  to 
the  triumphal  car  of  France. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  creating  by  the  force  of  his  prodi- 
gious talents  the  circumstances  of  which  inferior  minds  are 
but  the  creatures,  now  rapidly  rose  to  the  topmost  height  of 
power.  He  not  only  towered  above  the  mass  of  prejudices 
which  long  custom  had  legalized,  but  spurned  the  multitude 
by  whom  these  prejudices  had  been  overthrown.  Yet  he 
was  not  of  the  first  order  of  great  minds ;  for  he  wanted  that 
grand  principle  of  self-control,  which  is  the  supreme  attribute 
of  greatness.  Potent,  and  almost  irresistible  in  every  con- 
flict with  others,  and  only  to  be  vanquished  by  his  own  acts, 
he  possessed  many  of  the  higher  qualities  of  genius.  He 
was  rapid,  resolute,  and  daring,  filled  with  contempt  for  the 
littleness  of  mankind,  yet  moulding  every  atom  which  com- 
posed that  littleness  to  purposes  at  utter  variance  with  its 
nature.  In  defiance  of  the  first  essence  of  republican  theory, 
he  built  himself  an  imperial  throne  on  the  crushed  privileges 
of  a  prostrate  people ;  and  he  lavished  titles  and  dignities  on 
men  raised  from  its  very  dregs,  with  a  profusion  which  made 
nobility  a  by- word  of  scorn.  Kingdoms  were  created  for  his 
brothers  and  his  friends ;  and  the  Batavian  republic  was  made 
a  monarchy,  to  give  Louis  a  dignity,  or  at  least  a  title,  like 
the  rest. 

The  character  of  I^ouis  Bonaparte  was  gentle  and  amiable, 
his  manners  easy  and  afiable.  He  entered  on  his  new  rank 
with  the  best  intentions  towards  the  country  which  lie  was 
sent  to  reign  over ;  and  though  he  felt  acutely  when  the  peo- 
ple refused  him  marks  of  respect  and  applause,  which  was 
frequently  the  case,  his  temper  was  not  soured,  and  he  con- 
ceived no  resentment.  He  endeavored  to  merit  popularity ; 
and  though  his  power  was  scanty,  his  efforts  were  not  wholly 
unsuccessful.  He  labored  to  revive  the  ruined  trade,  which 
he  knew  to  be  the  staple  of  Dutch  prosperity :  but  the  mea- 
sures springing  from  this  praiseworthy  motive  were  totally 
opposed  to  the  policy  of  Napoleon ;  and  in  proportion  as  Louis 
made  friends  and  partisans  among  his  subjects,  he  excited 


272  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1810. 

bitter  enmity  in  his  imperial  brother.  Louis  was  so  averse 
from  the  continental  system,  or  exclusion  of  British  manufac- 
tures, that  during  his  short  reign  every  facility  was  given  to 
his  subjects  to  elude  it,  even  in  defiance  of  the  orders  con- 
veyed to  him  from  Paris  through  the  medium  of  the  French 
ambassador  at  the  Hague.*  He  imposed  no  restraints  on 
public  opinion,  nor  would  he  establish  the  odious  system  of 
espionage  cherished  by  the  French  police :  but  he  was  fickle 
in  his  purposes,  and  prodigal  in  his  expenses.  The  profuse- 
ness  of  his  expenditure  was  very  offensive  to  the  Dutch  no- 
tions of  respectability  in  matters  of  private  finance,  and  in- 
jurious to  the  existing  state  of  the  public  means.  The  tyr- 
anny of  Napoleon  became  soon  quite  insupportable  to  him ; 
so  much  so,  that  it  is  believed  that  had  the  ill-fated  English 
expedition  to  Walcheren  in  1809  succeeded,  and  the  army 
advanced  into  the  country,  he  would  have  declared  war 
against  France.f  After  an  ineffectual  struggle  of  more  than 
three  years,  he  chose  rather  to  abdicate  his  throne  than  re- 
tain it  under  the  degrading  conditions  of  proconsulate  sub- 
serviency. This  measure  excited  considerable  regret,  and 
much  esteem  for  the  man  who  preferred  the  retirement  of 
private  life  to  the  meanness  of  regal  slavery.  But  Louis 
left  a  galling  memento  of  misplaced  magnificence,  in  an  in- 
crease of  90  millions  of  florins  (about  9  millions  sterling)  to 
the  already  oppressive  amount  of  the  national  debt  of  the 
country. 
I  The  annexation  of  Holland  to  the  French  empire  was  im- 
ll  mediately  pronounced  by  Napoleon.  Two  thirds  of  the  na- 
tional debt  were  abolished,  the  conscription  law  was  intro- 
'  \  duced,  and  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  against  the  intro- 
duction of  British  manufactures  were  rigidly  enforced.  The 
nature  of  the  evils  inflicted  on  the  Dutch  people  by  this  an- 
nexation and  its  consequences  demands  a  somewhat  minute 
examination.  Previous  to  it  all  that  part  of  the  territory  of 
the  former  United  Provinces  had  been  ceded  to  France.  The 
kingdom  of  Holland  consisted  of  the  departments  of  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  the  mouths  of  the  Maese,  the  Upper  Yssel,  the 
mouths  of  the  Yssel,  Friesland,  and  the  Western  and  Eastern 
Ems ;  and  the  population  of  the  whole  did  not  exceed  1,800,000 
souls.  When  Louis  abdicated  his  throne,  he  left  a  military 
and  naval  force  of  18,000  men,  who  were  immediately  taken 
into  the  service  of  France ;  and  in  three  years  and  a  half 
after  that  event  this  number  was  increased  to  50,000,  by  the 
operation  of  the  French  naval  and  military  code :  thus  about 
a  thirty-sixth  part  of  the  whole  population  was  employed  in 

♦  Chad.  p.  12.  t  Idem.  p.  14. 


1812.  CONSCRIPTION.  273 

arms.  The  forces  included  in  the  maritime  conscription 
were  wholly  employed  in  the  navy.  The  national  guards 
were  on  constant  duty  in  the  garrisons  or  naval  establish- 
ments. The  cohorts  were  by  law  only  liable  to  serve  in  the 
interior  of  the  French  empire ; — that  is  to  say,  from  Ham- 
burgh to  Rome :  but  after  the  Russian  campaign,  this  limita- 
tion was  disregarded,  and  they  formed  a  part  of  Napoleon's 
army  at  the  battle  of  Bautzen. 

The  conscription  laws  now  began  to  be  executed  with  the 
greatest  rigor;  and  though  the  strictest  justice  and  impar- 
tiality were  observed  in  the  ballot  and  other  details  of  this 
most  oppressive  measure,  yet  it  has  been  calculated  that,  on 
an  average,  nearly  one-half  of  the  male  population  of  the  age 
of  twenty  years  was  annually  taken  off.  The  conscripts  were 
told  that  their  service  was  not  to  extend  beyond  the  term  of 
five  years ;  but  as  few  instances  occurred  of  a  French  soldier 
being  discharged  without  his  being  declared  unfit  for  service, 
it  was  always  considered  in  Holland  that  the  service  of  a  con- 
script was  tantamount  to  an  obligation  during  life.  Besides, 
the  regulations  respecting  the  conscription  were  annually 
changed,  by  which  means  the  code  became  each  year  more 
intricate  and  confused ;  and  as  the  explanation  of  any  doubt 
rested  with  the  functionaries,  to  whom  the  execution  of  the 
law  was  confided,  there  was  little  chance  of  their  construc- 
tions mitigating  its  severity. 

But  the  conscription,  however  galling,  was  general  in  its 
operation.  Not  so  the  formation  of  the  emperor's  guard  of 
honor.  The  members  of  this  patrician  troop  were  chosen 
from  the  most  noble  and  opulent  families,  particularly  those 
who  were  deemed  inimical  to  the  French  connexion.  The 
selection  depended  altogether  on  the  prefect,  who  was  sure 
to  name  those  most  obnoxious  to  his  political  or  personal  dis- 
like, without  regard  to  their  rank  or  occupation,  or  even  the 
state  of  their  health.  No  exemption  was  admitted — not  even 
to  those  who  from  mental  or  bodily  infirmity,  or  other  cause, 
had  been  declared  unfit  for  general  military  duty.  The  vic- 
tims were  forced  to  the  mockery  of  volunteering  their  ser- 
vices ;  obliged  to  provide  themselves  with  horses,  arms,  and 
accoutrements ;  and  when  arrived  at  the  depot  appointed  for 
their  assembling,  considered  probably  but  as  hostages  for  the 
fidelity  of  their  relatives. 

The  various  taxes  were  laid  on  and  levied  in  the  most  op- 
pressive manner ;  those  on  land  usually  amounting  to  25,  and 
those  on  houses  to  .30  per  cent,  of  the  clear  annual  rent. 
Other  direct  taxes  were  levied  on  persons  and  movable  prop- 


! 


274  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1813i^ 

erty,  and  all  were  regulated  on  a  scale  of  almost  intolerablea 
severity.  The  whole  sum  annually  obtained  from  Holland  byy 
these  means  amounted  to  about  30  millions  of  florins  (or  33 
million  pounds  sterling,)  being  at  the  rate  of  about  1^.  Ids.  4rfj, 
from  every  soul  inhabiting  the  country.  1 

The  operation  of  what  was  called  the  continental  system  I 
created  an  excess  of  misery  in  Holland,  only  to  be  understood 
by  those  who  witnessed  its  lamentable  results.  In  other  coun- 
tries, Belgium  for  instance,  where  great  manufactories  exist- 
ed, the  loss  of  maritime  communication  was  compensated  by 
the  exclusion  of  English  goods.  In  states  possessed  of  largee 
and  fertile  territories,  the  population  which  could  no  longerr 
be  employed  in  commerce  might  be  occupied  in  agricultural 
pursuits.  But  in  Holland,  whose  manufactures  were  incon- 
siderable, and  whose  territory  is  insufficient  to  support  its 
inhabitants,  the  destruction  of  trade  threw  innumerable  indi- 
viduals wholly  out  of  employment,  and  produced  a  graduated 
scale  of  poverty  in  all  ranks.  A  considerable  part  of  the  popu- 
lation had  been  employed  in  various  branches  of  the  traffic 
carried  on  by  means  of  the  many  canals  which  conveyed 
merchandise  from  the  seaports  into  the  interior,  and  to  the 
different  continental  markets.  When  the  communication  with 
England  was  cut  off,  principals  and  subordinates  were  in- 
volved in  a  common  ruin. 

In  France,  the  effect  of  the  continental  system  was  some- 
what alleviated  by  the  license  trade,  the  exportation  of  vari- 
ous productions  forced  on  the  rest  of  continental  Europe,  and 
the  encouragement  given  to  home  manufactures.  But  all 
this  was  reversed  in  Holland :  the  few  licenses  granted  to 
the  Dutch  were  clogged  with  duties  so  exorbitant  as  to  make 
them  useless;  the  duties  on  one  ship  which  entered  the 
Maese,  loaded  with  sugar  and  coffee,  amounting  to  about 
50,000/.  sterling.  At  the  same  time  every  means  were  used 
to  crush  the  remnant  of  Dutch  commerce  and  sacrifice  the 
country  to  France.  The  Dutch  troops  were  clothed  and 
armed  from  French  manufactories ;  the  frontiers  were  opened 
to  the  introduction  of  French  commodities  duty  free;  and 
the  Dutch  manufacturer  undersold  in  his  own  market. 

The  population  of  Amsterdam  was  reduced  from  220,000 
souls  to  190,000,  of  which  a  fourth  part  derived  their  whole 
subsistence  from  charitable  institutions,  whilst  another  fourth 
part  received  partial  succor  from  the  same  sources.  At  Haer- 
lem,  where  the  population  had  been  chiefly  employed  in 
bleaching  and  preparing  linen  made  in  Brabant,  whole  streets 
were  levelled  with  the  ground,  and  more  than  500  houses 


1813.  OPPRESSION    OF    NAPOLEON.  275 

destroyed.  At  the  Hague,  at  Delfl,  and  in  other  towns,  many 
inhabitants  had  been  induced  to  pull  down  their  houses,  from 
inability  to  keep  them  in  repair  or  pay  the  taxes.  The  pre- 
servation of  the  dikes,  requiring  an  annual  expense  of 
600,000/.  sterling-,  was  everywhere  neglected.  The  sea  in- 
undated the  country,  and  threatened  to  resume  its  ancient 
dominion.  No  object  of  ambition,  no  source  of  professional 
wealth  or  distinction,  remained  to  which  a  Hollander  could 
aspire.  None  could  voluntarily  enter  the  army  or  riavy,  to 
fight  for  the  worst  enemy  of  Holland.  The  clergy  were  not 
provided  with  a  decent  competency.  The  ancient  laws  of 
the  country,  so  dear  to  its  pride  and  its  prejudices,  were  re- 
placed by  the  Code  Napoleon ;  so  that  old  practitioners  had 
to  recommence  their  studies,  and  young  men  were  disgusted 
with  the  drudgery  of  learning  a  system  which  was  universally 
pronounced  unfit  for  a  commercial  country. 

Independent  of  this  mass  of  positive  ill,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  in  Holland  trade  was  not  merely  a  means  of  gain- 
ing wealth,  but  a  passion  long  and  deeply  grafted  on  the  na- 
tional mind:  so  that  the  Dutch  felt  every  aggravation  of 
calamity,  considering  themselves  degraded  and  sacrificed  by 
a  power  which  had  robbed  them  of  all  which  attaches  a  p>eo- 
ple  to  their  native  land ;  and,  for  an  accumulated  list  of  evils, 
only  offered  them  the  empty  glory  of  appertaining  to  the 
country  whicli  gave  the  law  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  England. 

Those  who  have  considered  the  events  noted  in  this  history 
for  the  last  200  years,  and  followed  the  fluctuations  of  public 
opinion  depending  on  prosperity  or  misfortune,  will  have  an- 
ticipated that,  in  the  present  calamitous  state  of  the  country, 
all  eyes  were  turned  towards  the  family  whose  memory  was 
revived  by  every  pang  of  slavery,  and  associated  with  every 
throb  for  freedom.  The  presence  of  the  prince  of  Orange, 
William  IV.,  who  had,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  succeeded 
to  the  title,  though  he  had  lost  the  revenues  of  his  ancient 
house,  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  connexion  with  Eng- 
land, were  now  the  general  desire.  Some  of  the  principal 
partisans  of  the  house  of  Nassau  were  for  some  time  in  cor- 
respondence with  his  most  serene  highness.  The  leaders  of 
the  various  parties  into  which  the  country  was  divided  be- 
came by  degrees  more  closely  united.  Approaches  towards 
a  better  understanding  were  reciprocally  made;  and  they 
ended  in  a  general  anxiety  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French, 
with  the  establishment  of  a  free  constitution,  and  a  cordial 
desire  that  the  prince  of  Orange  should  be  at  its  head.    It 


276  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS,  1813 

may  be  safely  affirmed,  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  1813, 
these  were  the  unanimous  wishes  of  the  Dutch  nation.* 

Napoleon,  lost  in  the  labyrinths  of  his  exorbitant  ambition, 
afforded  at  length  a  chance  of  redress  to  the  nations  he  had 
enslaved.  Elevated  so  suddenly  and  so  high,  he  seemed  sus- 
pended between  two  influences,  and  unfit  for  either.  He 
might,  in  a  moral  view,  be  said  to  have  breathed  badly,  in  a 
station  which  was  beyond  the  atmosphere  of  his  natural 
world,  without  being  out  of  its  attraction ;  and  having  reach- 
ed the  pinnacle,  he  soon  lost  his  balance  and  fell.  Driven 
from  Russia  by  the  junction  of  human  with  elemental  force, 
in  1812,  he  made  some  grand  efforts  in  the  following  year  to 
recover  from  his  irremediable  reverses.  The  battles  of  Baut- 
zen and  Lutzen  were  the  expiring  efforts  of  his  greatness. 
That  of  Leipsic  put  a  fatal  negative  upon  the  hopes  that 
sprung  from  the  two  former;  and  the  obstinate  ambition, 
which  at  this  epoch  made  him  refuse  the  most  liberal  offers 
of  the  allies,  was  justly  punished  by  humiliation  and  defeat. 
Almost  all  the  powers  of  Europe  now  leagued  against  him ; 
and  France  itself  being  worn  out  by  his  wasteful  expenditure 
of  men  and  money,  he  had  no  longer  a  chance  in  resistance. 
The  empire  was  attacked  at  all  points.  The  French  troops 
in  Holland  were  drawn  off  to  reinforce  the  armies  in  distant 
directions;  and  the  whole  military  force  in  that  country 
scarcely  exceeded  10,000  men.  The  advance  of  the  combined' 
armies  towards  the  frontiers  became  generally  known :  par- 
ties of  Cossacks  had  entered  the  north  of  Holland  in  Novem- 
ber, and  were  scouring  the  country  beyond  the  Yssel.  The 
moment  for  action  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  confederate  pa- 
triots had  now  arrived ;  and  it  was  not  lost  or  neglected. 

A  people  inured  to  revolutions  for  upwards  of  two  centu- 
ries, filled  with  proud  recollections,  and  urged  on  by  well- 
digested  hopes,  were  the  most  likely  to  understand  the  best 
period  and  the  surest  means  for  success.  An  attempt  that 
might  have  appeared  to  other  nations  rash,  was  proved  to  be 
wise,  both  by  the  reasonings  of  its  authors  and  its  own  re- 
sults. The  intolerable  tyranny  of  France  had  made  the  popu- 
lation not  only  ripe,  but  eager  for  revolt.  This  disposition 
was  acted  on  by  a  few  enterprising  men,  at  once  partisans  of 
the  house  of  Orange,  and  patriots  in  the  truest  sense  of  the 
word.  It  would  be  unjust  to  omit  the  mention  of  some  of  their 
names,  in  even  this  sketch  of  the  events  which  sprang  from 
their  courage  and  sagacity.    Count  Styrum,  Messieurs  Repe- 

*  Chad.  p.  39.— [We  have  in  all  this  portion  of  our  history  taken  this  work 
as  our  chief  authority ;  having  reason  to  know  that  it  is  considered  tlje 
most  authentic  record  of  feelings  as  well  as  events] 


1813.  PRINCE    OF    ORANGE    PROCLAIMED.  277 

laer  d'Jonge,  Van  Hogendorp,  Vander  Duyn  van  Maasdam, 
and  Changuion,  were  the  chiefs  of  the  intrepid  junta  which 
planned  and  executed  the  bold  measures  of  enfranchisement, 
and  drew  up  the  outlines  of  the  constitution  which  was  after- 
wards enlarged  and  ratified.  Their  first  movements  at  the 
Hague  were  totally  unsupported  by  foreign  aid.  Their  early 
checks  from  the  exasperated  French  and  their  over-cautious 
countrymen,  would  have  deterred  most  men  embarked  in 
so  perilous  a  venture ;  but  they  never  swerved  nor  shrank 
back.  At  the  head  of  a  force,  which  courtesy  and  policy 
called  an  army,  of  300  national  guards  badly  armed,  50  citizens 
carrying  fowling-pieces,  50  soldiers  of  the  old  Dutch  guard, 
400  auxiliary  citizens  armed  with  pikes,  and  a  cavalry  force 
of  20  young  men,  the  confederates  boldly  proclaimed  the 
prince  of  Orange,  on  the  17th  of  November,  1813,  in  their 
open  village  of  the  Hague,  and  in  the  teeth  of  a  French  force 
of  full  10,000  men,  occupying  every  fortress  in  the  country. 

While  a  few  gentlemen  thus  boldly  came  forward,  at  their 
own  risk,  with  no  funds  but  their  private  fortunes,  and  only 
aided  by  an  unarmed  populace,  to  declare  war  against  the 
French  emperor,  they  did  not  even  know  the  residence  of  the 
exiled  prince  in  whose  cause  tliey  were  now  so  completely 
compromised.  The  other  towns  of  Holland  were  in  a  state 
of  the  greatest  incertitude :  Rotterdam  had  not  moved ;  and 
the  intentions  of  admiral  Kickert,  who  commanded  there, 
were  (mistakenly)  supposed  to  be  decidedly  hostile  to  the  na- 
tional cause.  Amsterdam  had,  on  the  preceding  day,  been 
the  scene  of  a  popular  commotion,  which  however  bore  no 
decided  character ;  the  rioters  having  been  fired  on  by  the 
national  guard,  no  leader  coming  forward,  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  magistrates  cautiously  abstaining  from  any  allu- 
sion to  the  prince  of  Orange.  A  brave  officer,  captain  Falck, 
had  made  use  of  many  strong  but  inefficient  arguments  to 
prevail  on  the  timid  corporation  to  declare  for  the  prince; 
the  presence  of  a  French  garrison  of  sixty  men  seeming  suf- 
ficient to  preserve  their  patriotism  from  any  violent  excess. 

The  subsequent  events  at  the  Hague,  furnish  an  inspiring 
lesson  for  all  people  who  would  learn,  that  to  be  free  they 
must  be  resolute  and  daring.  The  only  hope  of  the  confed- 
erates was  from  the  British  government,  and  the  combined 
armies  then  acting  in  the  north  of  Europe.  But  many  days 
were  to  be  lingered  through  before  troops  could  be  embarked, 
and  make  their  way  from  England  in  the  teeth  of  the  easterly 
winds  then  prevailing ;  while  a  few  Cossacks,  hovering  on 
the  confines  of  Holland,  gave  the  only  evidence  of  the  prox- 
imity of  the  allied  forces.  .^..*^^- 
Y 


1 


278  HISTORY    OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  1813. 

In  this  crisis,  it  was  most  fortunate  that  the  French  prefect 
at  the  Hague,  M.  de  Stassart,  had  stolen  away  on  the  earliest 
alarm ;  and  the  French  garrison,  of  400  chasseurs,  aided  by 
100  well-armed  custom-house  officers,  under  the  command  of 
general  Bouvier  des  Eclats,  caught  the  contagious  fears  of 
the  civil  functionary.  This  force  had  retired  to  the  old  palace, 
— a  building  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  the  depot  of  all  the 
arms  and  ammunition  then  at  the  Hague,  and,  from  its  posi- 
tion, capable  of  some  defence.  But  the  general  and  his  gar- 
rison soon  felt  a  complete  panic  from  the  bold  attitude  of 
count  Sty  rum,  who  made  the  most  of  his  little  means,  and 
kept  up,  during  the  night,  a  prodigious  clatter  by  his  twenty 
horsemen ;  sentinels  challenging,  amidst  incessant  singing 
and  shouting,  cries  of  "  Oranje  boven!^^  "  Vivat  Oranje  I''^ 
and  clamorous  patrols  of  the  excited  citizens.  At  an  early 
hour  on  the  18th,  the  French  general  demanded  terms,  and 
obtained  permission  to  retire  on  Gorcum,  his  garrison  being 
escorted  as  far  as  the  village  of  Ryswick,  by  the  twenty  cav- 
aliers who  composed  the  whole  mounted  force  of  the  patriots. 

Unceasing  efforts  were  now  made  to  remedy  the  want  of 
arms  and  men.  A  quantity  of  pikes  were  rudely  made  and 
distributed  to  the  volunteers,  who  crowded  in ;  and  numerous 
fishing-boats  were  dispatched  in  different  directions  to  inform 
the  British  cruisers  of  the  passing  events.  An  individual 
named  Pronck,  an  inhabitant  of  Schsevening,  a  village  of  the 
coast,  rendered  great  services  in  this  way,  from  his  influence 
among  the  sailors  and  fishermen  in  the  neighborhood. 

The  confederates  spared  no  exertion  to  increase  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people,  under  many  contradictory  and  disheart- 
ening contingencies.  An  officer  who  had  been  dispatched 
for  advice  and  information  to  baron  Bentinck,  at  Zwolle,  who 
was  in  communication  with  the  allies,  returned  with  the  dis- 
couraging news  that  general  Bulow  had  orders  not  to  pass 
the  Yssel,  the  allies  having  decided  not  to  advance  into  Hol- 
land beyond  the  line  of  that  river.  A  meeting  of  the  ancient 
regents  of  the  Hague  was  convoked  by  the  proclamation  of 
the  confederates,  and  took  place  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Van  Ho- 
gendorp,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  De  Witts.  The  wary 
magistrates  absolutely  refused  all  co-operation  in  the  daring 
measures  of  the  confederates,  who  had  now  the  whole  re- 
sponsibility on  their  heads,  with  little  to  cheer  them  on  in 
their  perilous  career,  but  their  own  resolute  hearts,  and  the 
recollection  of  those  days  when  their  ancestors,  with  odds  as 
fearfully  against  them,  rose  up  and  shivered  to  atoms  the 
yoke  of  their  oppressors. 

Some  days  of  intense  anxiety  now  elapsed ;  and  various 


1813.  ARMIES    OF    UTRECHT   AND   GORCUM.  279 

incidents  occurred  to  keep  up  the  general  excitement.  Re- 
inforcements came  gradually  in ;  no  hostile  measure  was  re- 
sorted to  by  the  French  troops ;  yet  the  want  of  success,  as 
rapid  as  was  proportioned  to  the  first  movements  of  the  revo- 
lution, threw  a  gloom  over  all.  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam 
still  held  back ;  but  the  nomination  of  Messrs.  Van  Hogen- 
dorp  and  Vander  Duyn  Van  Maasdam  to  be  heads  of  the  gov- 
ernment, until  the  arrival  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  a 
formal  abjuration  of' the  emperor  Napoleon,  inspired  new 
vigor  into  the  public  mind.  Two  nominal  armies  were  formed, 
and  two  generals  appointed  to  tlie  command ;  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  resist  a  smile  of  mingled  amusement  and  admira- 
tion, on  reading  the  exact  statement  of  the  forces,  so  pomp- 
ously and  so  effectively  announced  as  forming  the  armies  of 
Utrecht  and  Gorcum. 

The  first  of  these,  commanded  by  major-general  D'Jonge, 
consisted  of 

300  Infantry, 
32  Volunteer  cavalry,  witli 
2  Eight  pounders. 

The  latter,  under  the  orders  of  major-general  Sweertz  Van 
Landas,  was  composed  of 

250  of  the  Hague  Orange  guard, 
30  Prussian  deserters  from  the  French  garrison, 
300  Volunteers, 
40  Cavalry,  with 
2  Eight  pounders. 

The  "  army  of  Gorcum"  marched  on  the  22d  on  Rotter- 
dam :  its  arrival  was  joyfully  hailed  by  the  people,  who  con- 
tributed 300  volunteers  to  swell  its  ranks.  The  "  army  of 
Utrecht"  advanced  on  Leyden,  and  raised  the  spirits  of  the 
people  by  the  display  of  even  so  small  a  force.  But  still  the 
contrary  winds  kept  back  all  appearance  of  succor  from  Eng- 
land ;  the  enemy  was  known  to  meditate  a  general  attack  on 
the  patriot  lines  from  Amsterdam  to  Dordrecht.  The  bad 
state  of  the  roads  still  retarded  the  approach  of  the  far-distant 
armies  of  the  allies ;  alarms,  true  and  false,  were  spread  on 
all  hands, — when  the  appearance  of  300  Cossacks,  detached 
from  the  Russian  armies  beyond  the  Yssel,  prevailed  over  the 
hesitation  of  Amsterdam  and  the  other  towns,  and  they  at 
length  declared  for  the  prince  of  Orange. 

But  this  somewhat  tardy  determination  seemed  to  be  the 
signal  for  various  petty  events,  w^hich  at  an  epoch  like  that 
were  magnified  into  transactions  of  the  most  fatal  import.  A 
reinforcement  of  1500  French  troops  reached  Gorcum  from 
Antwerp :  a  detachment  of  twenty-five  Dutch,  with  a  piece 


280  HISTORY   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1813. 

of  cannon,  were  surprised  at  one  of  the  outposts  of  Woerden, 
which  had  been  previously  evacuated  by  the  French,  and  the 
recapture  of  the  town  was  accompanied  by  some  excesses. 
The  numbers  and  the  cruelties  of  the  enemy  were  greatly  ex- 
aggerated. Consternation  began  to  spread  all  over  the  coun- 
try. The  French,  who  seemed  to  have  recovered  from  their 
panic,  had  resumed  on  all  sides  offensive  operations.  The 
garrison  of  Gorcum  made  a  sortie,  repulsed  the  force  under 
general  Van  Landas,  entered  the  town  of  Dordrecht,  and  le- 
vied contributions :  but  the  inhabitants  soon  expelled  them ; 
and  the  army  was  enabled  to  resume  its  position. 

Still  the  wind  continued  adverse  to  arrivals  from  the  Eng- 
lish coast;  the  Cossacks,  so  often  announced,  had  not  yet 
reached  the  Hague ;  and  the  small  unsupported  parties  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Amsterdam  were  in  daily  danger  of  being 
cut  off.  ^  ■' 

In  this  crisis  the  confederates  were  placed  in  a  most  critical 
position.  On  the  eve  of  failure,  and  with  the  certainty,  in 
such  a  result,  of  being  branded  as  rebels  and  zealots,  whose 
rashness  had  drawn  down  ruin  on  themselves,  their  families, 
and  their  country,  it  required  no  common  share  of  fortitude 
to  bear  up  against  the  danger  that  threatened  them.  Aware 
of  its  extent,  they  calmly  and  resolutely  opposed  it;  and  each 
seemed  to  vie  with  the  others  in  energy  and  firmness. 

The  anxiety  of  the  public  had  reached  the  utmost  possible 
height.  Every  shifting  of  the  wind  was  watched  with  nerv- 
ous agitation.  The  road  from  the  Hague  to  the  sea  was  con- 
stantly covered  with  a  crowd  of  every  age  and  sex.  Each 
sail  that  came  in  sight  was  watched  and  examined  with  in- 
tense interest ;  and  at  length,  on  the  26th  of  November,  a 
small  boat  was  seen  to  approach  the  shore,  and  the  inquiring 
glances  of  the  observers  soon  discovered  that  it  contained  an 
Englishman.  This  individual,  who  had  come  over  on  a  mer- 
cantile adventure,  landed  amidst  the  loudest  acclamation,  and 
was  conducted  by  the  populace  in  triumph  to  the  governor's. 
Dressed  in  an  English  volunteer  uniform,  he  showed  himself 
in  every  part  of  the  town,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  people, 
who  hailed  him  as  the  precursor  and  type  of  an  army  of  de- 
liverers. 

The  French  soon  retreated  before  the  marvellous  exag*. 
gerations  which  the  coming  of  this  single  Englishman  gave 
rise  to.  The  Dutch  displayed  great  ability  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  false  intelligence  to  the  enemy.  On  the  27th  Mr. 
Fagel  arrived  from  England  with  a  letter  from  the  prince  of 
Orange,  announcing  his  immediate  coming;  and  finally,  the 
disembarkation  of  200  English  marines,  on  the  29th,  was  fol- 


1813.  WILLIAM    LANDS    IN    HOLLAND.  281 

lowed  tlie  next  day  by  the  landing  of  the  prince,  whose  impa- 
tience to  throw  himself  into  the  open  arms  of  his  country 
made  him  spurn  every  notion  of  risk  and  every  reproach  for 
rashness.  He  was  received  with  indescribable  enthusiasm. 
The  generous  flame  rushed  through  the  whole  country.  No 
bounds  were  set  to  the  affectionate  confidence  of  the  nation , 
and  no  prince  ever  gave  a  nobler  example  of  gratitude.  As 
the  people  everyvv7iere  proclaimed  William  I.  sovereign 
prmce,  it  was  proposed  that  he  should  everywhere  assume 
that  title.  It  was,  however,  after  some  consideration,  decided 
that  no  step  of  this  nature  should  be  taken  till  his  most  serene 
highness  had  visited  the  capital.  On  the  1st  of  December 
the  prince  issued  a  proclamation  to  his  countrymen,  in  which 
he  states  his  hopes  of  becoming,  by  the  blessing  of  Providence, 
the  means  of  restoring  them  to  their  former  state  of  indepen- 
dence and  prosperity.  "  This,"  continued  he,  "  is  my  only 
object ;  and  I  have  the  satisfaction  of  assuring  you,  that  it  is 
also  the  object  of  the  combined  powers.  This  is  particularly 
the  wish  of  the  prince  regent  and  the  British  nation ;  and  it 
will  be  proved  to  you  by  the  succor  which  that  powerful 
people  will  immediately  afford  you,  and  which  will,  I  hope, 
restore  those  ancient  bonds  of  alliance  and  friendship  which 
were  a  source  of  prosperity  and  happiness  to  both  countries." 
This  address  being  distributed  at  Amsterdam,  a  proclamation, 
signed  by  the  commissioners  of  the  confederate  patriots,  was 
published  there  the  same  day :  it  contained  the  following  pas- 
sages, remarkable  as  being  the  first  authentic  declaration  of 
the  sovereignty  subsequently  conferred  on  the  prince  of  Or- 
ange : — "  The  uncertainty  which  formerly  existed  as  to  the 
executive  power  will  no  longer  paralyze  your  efibrts.  It  is 
not  William  the  sixth  stadtholder  whom  the  nation  recalls, 
without  knowing  what  to  hope  or  expect  from  him ;  but  Wil- 
liam I.  who  offers  himself  as  sovereign  prince  of  this  free  coun- 
try." The  following  day,  the  2d  of  December,  the  prince 
made  his  entry  into  Amsterdam.  lie  did  not,  like  some  other 
sovereigns,  enter  by  a  breach  through  the  constitutional  liber- 
ties of  his  country,  in  imitation  of  the  conquerors  from  the 
Olympic  games,  who  returned  to  the  city  by  a  breach  in  its 
walls:  he  went  forward  borne  on  the  enthusiastic  greetings 
of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and  meeting  their  confidence  by  a 
full  measure  of  magnanimity.  On  the  3d  of  December  he 
published  an  address,  from  which  we  shall  quote  one  para- 
graph.— "  You  desire,  Netherlands !  that  I  should  be  intrusted 
with  a  greater  share  of  power  than  I  should  have  possessed 
but  for  my  absence.  Your  confidence,  your  affection,  offer 
me  the  sovereignty ;  and  I  am  called  upon  to  accept  it,  since 
Y2 


■ 


282  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1814. 

the  state  of  my  country  and  the  situation  of  Europe  require 
it.  I  accede  to  your  wishes.  I  overlook  the  difficulties  which 
may  attend  such  a  measure ;  I  accept  the  offer  which  you 
have  made  me ;  but  I  accept  it  only  on  one  condition, — that  it 
shall  be  accompanied  by  a  wise  constitution,  which  shall  guar- 
anty your  liberties,  and  secure  them  against  every  attack. 
My  ancestors  sowed  the  seeds  of  your  independence:  the 
preservation  of  that  independence  shall  be  the  constant  object 
of  the  efforts  of  myself  and  those  around  me." 


CHAP.  XXIII. 
1814—1815. 

FROM    THE    INSTALLATION    OF    WILLIAM    I.    AS    PRINCE    SOVEREIGN    OF 
THE    NETHERLANDS    TO    THE    BATTLE    OF    WATERLOO. 

The  regeneration  of*  Holland  was  rapid  and  complete. 
Within  four  months,  an  army  of  25,000  men  was  raised ;  and 
in  the  midst  of  financial,  judicial,  and  commercial  arrange- 
ments, the  grand  object  of  the  constitution  was  calmly  and 
seriously  debated.  A  committee,  consisting  of  fourteen  per- 
sons of  the  first  importance  in  the  several  provinces,  furnished 
the  result  of  three  months'  labors  in  the  plan  of  a  political 
code,  which  was  immediately  printed  and  published  for  the 
consideration  of  the  people  at  large.  Twelve  hundred  names 
were  next  chosen  from  among  the  most  respectable  house- 
holders in  the  different  towns  and  provinces,  including  per- 
sons of  every  religious  persuasion,  whether  Jews  or  Chris- 
tians. A  special  commission  was  then  formed,  who  selected 
from  this  number  600  names;  and  every  housekeeper  was 
called  on  to  give  his  vote  for  or  against  their  election.  A 
large  majority  of  the  600  notables  thus  chosen  met  at  Am- 
sterdam, on  the  28th  of  March,  1814.  The  following  day  they 
assembled  with  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  in  the  great 
church,  which  was  splendidly  fitted  up  for  the  occasion ;  and 
then  and  there  the  prince,  in  an  impressive  speech,  solemnly 
offered  the  constitution  for  acceptance  or  rejection.  After  a 
few  hours'  deliberation,  a  discharge  of  artillery  announced  to 
the  anxious  population  that  the  constitution  had  been  accepted. 
The  numbers  present  were  483,  and  the  votes  as  follows : — 
Ayes,  ...  458 
Noes,     -        -        -        -     25. 

There  were  117  members  absent ;  several  of  these  were 


1814,        THE  CONSTITUTION  ACCEPTED.        283 

kept  away  by  unavoidable  obstacles.  The  majority  amonsf 
them  was  considered  as  dissentients ;  but  it  was  calculated 
that  if  the  whole  body  of  600  had  voted,  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  would  have  been  carried  by  a  majority  of  five 
sixths.  The  dissentients  chiefly  objected  to  the  power  of  de- 
claring" w^ar  and  concluding  treaties  of  peace  being  vested  in 
the  sovereign.  Some  individuals  urged  that  the  Protestant 
interest  was  endangered  by  the  admission  of  persons  of  every 
persuasion  to  all  public  offices ;  and  the  Catholics  complained 
that  the  state  did  not  sufficiently  contribute  to  the  support  of 
their  religious  establishments. 

Such  objections  as  these  were  to  be  expected,  from  indi- 
vidual interest  or  sectarian  prejudices.  But  they  prove  that 
the  whole  plan  was  fairly  considered  and  solemnly  adopted ; 
that  so  far  from  being  the  dictation  of  a  government,  it  was 
the  freely  chosen  charter  of  the  nation  at  large,  offered  and 
sworn  to  by  the  prince,  whose  authority  was  only  exerted  in 
restraining  and  modifying  the  over-ardent  generosity  and  con- 
fidence of  the  people. 

Only  one  day  more  elapsed  before  the  new  sovereign  was 
solemnly  inaugurated,  and  took  the  oath  prescribed  by  the 
constitution — "  I  swear  that  first  and  above  all  things  I  will 
maintain  the  constitution  of  the  United  Netherlands,  and  that 
I  will  promote,  to  the  utmost  of  my  power,  the  independence 
of  the  state,  and  the  liberty  and  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants." 
In  the  eloquent  simplicity  of  this  pledge,  the  Dutch  nation 
found  an  ample  guarantee  for  their  freedom  and  happiness. 
With  their  characteristic  wisdom  and  moderation,  they  saw 
that  the  obligation  it  imposed  embraced  every  thing  they 
could  demand ;  and  they  joined  in  the  opinion  expressed  by 
the  sovereign  in  his  inaugural  address,  that  "  no  greater  de- 
gree of  liberty  could  be  desired  by  rational  subjects,  nor  any 
larger  share  of  power  by  the  sovereign,  than  that  allotted  to 
them  respectively  by  the  political  code." 

While  Holland  thus  resumed  its  place  among  free  nations, 
and  France  was  restored  to  the  Bourbons  by  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon,  the  allied  armies  had  taken  possession  of  and  oc- 
cupied the  remainder  of  the  Low  Countries,  or  those  prov- 
inces distinguished  by  the  name  of  Belgium  (but  then  still 
forming  departments  of  the  French  empire,)  and  the  provi- 
sional government  was  vested  in  baron  Vincent,  the  Austrian 
general.  This  choice  seemed  to  indicate  an  intention  of  re- 
storing Austria  to  her  ancient  domination  over  the  country. 
Such  was  certainly  the  common  opinion  among  those  who  had 
no  means  of  penetrating  the  secrets  of  European  policy  at 
that  important  epoch.     It  was  in  fact,  quite  conformable  to 


284  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1814. 

the  principle  of  statu  quo  ante  hellu77i,  adopted  towards 
France.  Baron  Vincent  himself  seemed  to  have  been  im- 
pressed with  the  false  notion ;  and  there  did  not  exist  a  doubt 
throughout  Belgium  of  the  re-establisment  of  the  old  insti- 
tutions. 

But  the  intentions  of  the  allied  powers  were  of  a  nature 
far  different.  The  necessity  of  a  consolidated  state  capable 
of  oJSering  a  barrier  to  French  aggression  on  the  Flemish 
frontier,  was  evident  to  the  various  powers  who  had  so  long 
suffered  from  its  want.  By  England  particularly,  such  a  field 
was  required  for  the  operations  of  her  armies;  and  it  was 
also  the  interest  of  that  nation  that  Holland,  whose  welfare 
and  prosperity  are  so  closely  connected  with  lier  own,  should 
enjoy  the  blessings  of  national  independence  and  civil  liberty, 
guarantied  by  internal  strength  as  well  as  friendly  alliances. 

The  treaty  of  Paris  (30th  May,  1814)  was  the  first  act 
which  gave  an  open  manifestation  of  this  principle.  It  was 
stipulated  by  its  sixth  article,  that  "  Holland,  placed  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  house  of  Orange,  should  receive  an  in- 
crease of  territory."  In  this  was  explained  the  primitive  no- 
tion of  the  creation  of  the  kingdom' of  the  Netherlands,  based 
on  the  necessity  of  augmenting  the  power  of  a  nation  which 
was  destined  to  turn  the  balance  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. The  following  month  witnessed  the  execution  of  the 
treaty  of  London,  which  prescribed  the  precise  nature  of  the 
projected  increase. 

It  was  wholly  decided,  without  subjecting  the  question  to 
the  approbation  of  Belgium,  that  that  country  and  Holland 
should  form  one  United  State ;  and  the  rules  of  government 
in  the  chief  branches  of  its  administration  were  completely 
fixed.  The  prince  of  Orange  and  the  plenipotentiaries  of 
the  great  allied  powers  covenanted  by  this  treaty — first,  that 
the  union  of  the  two  portions  forming  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible,  forming  one 
state,  governed  in  conformity  with  the  fundamental  law  of 
Holland,  which  might  be  modified  by  common  consent; 
secondly,  that  religious  liberty,  and  the  equal  right  of  citizens 
of  all  persuasions  to  fill  all  the  employments  of  the  state, 
should  be  maintained:  thirdly,  that  the  Belgian  provinces 
should  be  fairly  presented  in  the  assembly  of  the  states-gene- 
ral ;  and  that  the  sessions  of  the  states  in  time  of  peace  should 
be  held  alternately  in  Belgium  and  in  Holland:  fourthly  and 
fifthly,  that  all  the  commerciEil  privileges  of  the  country 
should  be  common  to  tlie  citizens  at  large ;  that  the  Dutch 
colonies  should  be  considered  as  belonging  equally  to  Bel- 


1814.  THE    DUTCH    CHARACTER.  285 

gium :  and  finally,  that  the  public  debt  of  the  two  countries, 
and  the  expenses  of  its  interest,  should  be  borne  in  common. 

We  shall  now  briefly  recapitulate  some  striking  points  in 
the  materials  which  were  thus  meant  to  be  amalgamated. 
Holland,  wrenched  from  the  Spanish  yoke  by  the  genius  and 
courage  of  the  early  princes  of  Orange,  had  formed  for  two 
centuries  an  independent  republic,  to  which  the  extension  of 
maritime  commerce  had  given  immense  wealth.  The  form 
of  government  was  remarkable.  It  was  composed  of  seven 
provinces,  mutually  independent  of  each  other.  These  prov- 
inces possessed  during  the  middle  ages  constitutions  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  England  :  a  sovereign  with  limited  power ; 
representatives  of  the  nobles  and  commons,  whose  concur- 
rence with  the  prince  was  necessary  for  the  formation  of 
laws;  and,  finally,  the  existence  of  municipal  privileges, 
which  each  town  preserved  and  extended  by  means  of  its 
proper  force.  This  state  of  things  had  known  but  one  altera- 
tion— but  that  a  mighty  one — the  forfeiture  of  Philip  II.  at 
the  latter  end  of  the  sixteentli  century,  and  the  total  abolition 
of  monarchical  power. 

Ilie  remaining  forms  of  the  government  were  hardly 
altered ;  so  that  the  state  wels  wholly  regulated  by  its  ancient 
usages ;  and,  like  some  Gothic  edifice,  its  beauty  and  solidity 
were  perfectly  original,  and  different  from  the  general  rules 
and  modern  theories  of  surrounding  nations.  The  country 
loved  its  liberty  such  as  it  found  it,  and  not  in  the  fashion  of  j 
any  Utopian  plan  traced  by  some  new-fangled  system  of  politi-  { I 
cal  philosophy.  Inherently  Protestant  and  commercial,  the  |j 
Dutch  abhorred  every  yoke  but  that  of  their  own  laws,  of  ' 
which  they  were  proud  even  in  their  abuse.  They  held  in  i 
particular  detestation  all  French  customs,  in  remembrance  of 
the  wretchedness  they  had  suflored  from  French  tyranny; 
they  had  unbounded  confidence  in  the  house  of  Orange,  from 
long  experience  of  its  hereditary  virtues.  The  main  strength 
of  Holland  was,  in  fact,  in  its  recollections ;  but  these,  per- 
haps, generated  a  germ  of  discontent,  in  leading  it  to  expect 
a  revival  of  all  the  influence  it  had  lost,  and  was  little  likely 
to  recover,  in  the  total  change  of  systems  and  the  variations 
of  trade.  There  nevertheless  remained  sufficient  capital  in 
the  country,  and  the  people  were  sufficiently  enlightened,  to 
give  just  and  extensive  hope  for  the  future  which  now  dawned 
on  them.  The  obstacles  offered  by  the  Dutch  character  to 
the  proposed  union  were  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  dogmatical 
opinions,  consequent  on  the  isolation  of  the  country  from  all 
the  principles  that  actuated  other  states,  and  particularly  that 
with  which  it  was  now  joined :  while  long-cherished  senti- 


4 


286  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1814. 

ments  of  opposition  to  the  Catholic  religion  was  little  likely 
to  lead  to  feelings  of  accommodation  and  sympathy  with  its 
new  fellow-citizens. 

The  inhabitants  of  Belgium,  accustomed  to  foreign  domi- 
nation, were  little  shocked  by  the  fact  of  the  allied  powers 
having  disposed  of  their  fate  without  consulting  their  wishes. 
But  they  were  not  so  indifferent  to  the  double  discovery  of 
finding  themselves  the  subjects  of  a  Dutch  and  a  Protestant 
king.  Without  entering  at  large  into  any  invidious  discus- 
sion on  the  causes  of  the  natural  jealousy  which  they  felt 
towards  Holland,  it  may  suffice  to  state  that  such  did  exist, 
and  in  no  very  moderate  degree.  The  countries  had  hitherto 
had  but  little  community  of  interests  with  each  other ;  and 
they  formed  elements  so  utterly  discordant  as  to  afford  but 
slight  hope  that  they  would  speedily  coalesce.  The  lower 
classes  of  the  Belgian  population  were  ignorant  as  well  as 
superstitious  (not  that  these  two  qualities  are  to  be  considered 
as  inseparable) ;  and  if  they  were  averse  to  the  Dutch,  they 
were  perhaps  not  more  favorably  disposed  to  the  French  and 
Austrians.  The  majority  of  the  nobles  may  be  said  to  have 
leant  more,  at  this  period,  to  the  latter  than  to  either  of^the 
other  two  people.  But  the  great  majority  of  the  industrious 
and  better  informed  portions  of  the  middle  orders  felt  differ- 
ently from  the  other  two,  because  they  had  found  tangible 
and  positive  advantages  in  their  subjection  to  France,  which 
overpowered  every  sentiment  of  political  degradation. 

We  thus  see  there  was  little  sympathy  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  national  family.  The  first  glance  at  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  Holland  and  Belgium  might  lead  to  a 
belief  that  their  interests  were  analogous.  But  we  have 
traced  the  anomalies  in  government  and  religion  in  the  two 
countries,  which  led  to  totally  different  pursuits  and  feelings. 
Holland  had  sacrificed  manufactures  to  commerce.  The  in- 
troduction, duty  free,  of  gram  from  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  though  checking  the  progress  of  agriculture,  had 
not  prevented  it  to  flourish  marvellously,  considering  this 
obstacle  to  culture ;  and,  faithful  to  their  traditional  notions, 
the  Dutch  saw  the  elements  of  well-being  only  in  that  liberty 
of  importation  which  had  made  their  harbors  the  marts  and 
magazines  of  Europe.  But  the  Belgian,  to  use  the  expres- 
sions of  an  acute  and  well-informed  writer,  "  restricted  in  the 
thrall  of  a  less  liberal  religion,  is  bounded  in  the  narrow  cir- 
cle of  his  actual  locality.  Concentrated  in  his  home,  he  does 
not  look  beyond  the  limits  of  his  native  land,  which  he  re- 
gards exclusively.    Incurious,  and  stationary  in  a  happy  ex- 


1815.      FORMATION  OF  THE  MONARCHY.        287 

istencc,  he  has  no  interest  in  what  passes  beyond  his  own 
doors,"* 

Totally  unaccustomed  to  the  free  principles  of  trade  so 
cherished  by  the  Dutch,  the  Belgians  had  found,  under  the 
protection  of  the  French  custom-house  laws,  an  intenial  com- 
merce and  agricultural  advantages,  which  composed  their 
peculiar  prosperity.  They  found  a  consumption  for  the  pro- 
duce of  their  well-cultivated  lands,  at  high  prices,  in  the 
neighboring  provinces  of  France.  The  webs  woven  by  the 
Belgian  peasantry,  and  generally  all  the  manufactures  of  the 
country,  met  no  rivalry  from  those  of  England,  which  were 
strictly  prohibited ;  and  being  commonly  superior  to  those  of 
France,  the  sale  was  sure  and  the  profit  considerable. 

Belgium  was  as  naturally  desirous  of  this  state  of  things 
as  Holland  was  indifferent  to  it ;  but  it  could  only  have  been 
accomplished  by  the  destruction  of  free  trade,  and  the  exclu- 
sive protection  of  internal  manufactures.  Under  such  dis- 
crepancies as  we  have  thus  traced  in  religion,  character,  and 
local  interests,  the  two  countries  were  made  one ;  and  on  the 
new  monarch  devolved  the  hard  and  delicate  task  of  recon- 
ciling each  party  in  the  ill-assorted  match,  and  inspiring  them 
with  sentiments  of  mutual  moderation. 

Under  the  title  of  governor-general  of  the  Netherlands 
(for  his  intended  elevation  to  the  throne,  and  the  definitive 
junction  of  Holland  and  Belgium  were  still  publicly  un- 
known), the  prince  of  Orange  repaired  to  his  new  state.  He 
arrived  at  Brussels  in  the  month  of  August,  1814,  and  his 
first  effort  was  to  gain  the  hearts  and  the  confidence  of  the 
people,  though  he  saw  the  nobles  and  the  higher  orders  of 
the  inferior  classes  (with  the  exception  of  the  merchants)  in- 
triguing all  around  him  for  the  re-establishment  of  the  Aus- 
trian power.  Petitions  on  this  subject  were  printed  and  dis- 
tributed ;  and  the  models  of  those  anti-national  documents 
may  still  be  referred  to  in  a  work  published  at  the  time.f 

As  soon  as  the  moment  came  for  promulgating  the  decision 
of  the  sovereign  powers  as  to  the  actual  extent  of  the  new 
kingdom — that  is  to  say,  in  tlie  month  of  February,  1815 — 
the  whole  plan  was  made  public ;  and  a  commission,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-seven  members,  Dutch  and  Belgian,  was  form- 
ed, to  consider  the  modifications  necessary  in  the  fundamental 
law  of  Holland,  in  pursuance  of  the  stipulation  of  the  treaty 
of  London.     Afler  due  deliberation  these  modifications  were 

*  L'AbW  de  Pradt,  de  la  Belgique,  pp.  10. 14. 
t  History  of  the  Low  Countries,  by  St.  Genoist. 


288  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1815. 

formed,  and  the  great  political  pact  was  completed  for  thd 
final  acceptance  of  the  king  and  people. 

As  a  document  so  important  merits  particular  consideration, 
in  reference  to  the  formation  of  the  new  monarchy,  we  shall 
briefly  condense  the  reasonings  of  the  most  impartial  and 
well-informed  classes  in  the  country  on  the  constitution  now 
about  to  be  framed.  Every  one  agreed  that  some  radical 
change  in  the  whole  form  of  government  was  necessary,  and 
that  its  main  improvement  should  be  the  strengthening  of  the 
executive  power.  That  possessed  by  the  former  stadtholders 
of  Holland  was  often  found  to  be  too  much  for  the  chief  of  a 
republic,  too  little  for  the  head  of  a  monarchy.*  The  assem- 
bly of  the  states-general,  as  of  old  constructed,  was  defective 
in  many  points ;  in  none  so  glaringly  so,  as  in  that  condition 
which  required  unanimity  in  questions  of  peace  or  war,  and 
in  the  provision,  from  which  they  had  no  power  to  swerve, 
that  all  the  taxes  should  be  uniform.  Both  these  stipulations 
were,  of  sheer  necessity,  continually  disregarded ;  so  that 
the  government  could  be  carried  on  at  all  only  by  repeated 
violations  of  the  constitution.  In  order  to  excuse  measures 
dictated  by  this  necessity,  each  stadtholder  was  perpetually 
obliged  to  form  partisans,  and  he  thus  became  the  hereditary 
head  of  a  faction. f  His  legitimate  power  was  trifling;  but 
his  influence  was  capable  of  fearful  increase :  for  the  prin- 
ciple which  allowed  him  to  infringe  the  constitution,  even  on 
occasions  of  public  good,  might  be  easily  warped  into  a  pre- 
text for  encroachments  that  had  no  bounds  but  his  own  will. 

Besides,  the  preponderance  of  the  deputies  from  the  com- 
mercial towns  in  the  states-general  caused  the  others  to  be- 
come mere  ciphers  in  times  of  peace ;  only  capable  of  clogging 
the  march  of  affairs,  and  of  being,  on  occasions  of  civil  dis- 
sensions, the  mere  tools  of  whatever  party  possessed  the 
greatest  tact  in  turning  them  to  their  purpose.  J  Hence  a 
wide  field  was  open  to  corruption.  Uncertainty  embarrassed 
every  operation  of  the  government.  The  Hague  became  an 
arena  for  the  conflicting  intrigues  of  every  court  in  Europe. 
Holland  was  dragged  into  almost  every  war ;  and  thus  grad- 
ually weakened  from  its  rank  among  independent  nations,  it 
at  length  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  French  invaders. 

To  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  evils  as  those,  and  to 
establish  a  kingdom  on  the  solid  basis  of  a  monarchy,  une- 
quivocal in  its  essence  yet  restrained  in  its  prerogative,  the 
constitution  we  are  now  examining  was  established.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  the  commissioners  who  framed  it,  "It  is 

♦  Chad.  t  Idem.  I  Idem. 


1815.  NAPOLEON   RETURNS    FROM    ELBA.  289 

founded  on  the  manners  and  habits  of  the  nation,  on  its  pub- 
lic economy  and  its  old  institutions,  with  a  disregard  for  the 
ephemeral  constitutions  of  the  age.  It  is  not  a  mere  abstrac- 
tion, more  or  less  ingenious,  but  a  law  adapted  to  the  state 
of  the  country  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  did  not  recon- 
struct what  was  worn  out  by  time ;  but  it  revived  all  that 
was  worth  preserving.  In  such  a  system  of  laws  and  insti- 
tutions well  adapted  to  each  other,  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission belonging  to  the  Belgian  provinces  recognized  the 
basis  of  their  ancient  charters,  and  the  principles  of  their 
former  liberty.  They  found  no  difficulty  in  adapting  this  law, 
so  as  to  make  it  common  to  the  two  nations,  united  by  ties 
which  had  been  broken  only  for  their  own  misfortune  and 
that  of  Europe,  and  which  it  was  once  more  the  interest  of 
Europe  to  render  indissoluble." 

The  news  of  the  elevation  of  William  I.  to  the  throne  waa 
received  in  the  Dutch  provinces  with  great  joy,  in  as  far  as 
it  concerned  him  personally ;  but  a  joy  considerably  tempered 
by  doubt  and  jealousy,  as  regarded  their  junction  with  a 
country  sufficiently  large  to  counterbalance  Holland,  oppose  - 
interests  to  interests,  and  people  to  people.  National  pride 
and  over-sanguine  expectations  prevented  a  calm  judgment 
on  the  existing  state  of  Europe,  and  on  the  impossibility  of 
Holland,  in  its  ancient  limits,  maintaining  the  influence  which 
it  was  hoped  it  would  acquire. 

In  Belgium  the  formation  of  the  new  monarchy  excited  the 
most  lively  sensation.  The  clergy  and  the  nobility  were 
considerably  agitated  and  not  slightly  alarmed;  the  latter 
fearing  the  resentment  of  the  king  for  their  avowed  predilec- 
tion in  favor  of  Austria,  and  perceiving  the  destruction  of 
every  hope  of  aristocratical  domination.  The  more  elevated 
of  the  middle  classes  also  saw  an  end  to  their  exclusive  oc- 
cupation of  magisterial  and  municipal  employments.  The 
manufacturers,  great  and  small,  saw  the  ruin  of  monopoly 
staring  them  in  the  face.  The  whole  people  took  fright  at 
the  weight  of  the  Dutch  debt,  which  was  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  Belgium.  No  one  seemed  to  look  beyond  the 
present  moment.  The  advantage  of  colonial  possessions 
seemed  remote  and  questionable  to  those  who  possessed  no 
maritime  commerce ;  and  the  pride  of  national  independence 
was  foreign  to  the  feelings  of  those  who  had  never  yet  tasted 
its  blessings. 

It  was  in  this  state  of  public  feeling  that  intelligence  was 
received,  in  March,  1815,  of  the  reappearance  in  France  of 
the  emperor  Napoleon.  At  the  head  of  300  men  he  had  taken 
the  resolution,  without  parallel  even  among  the  grandest  of 

Z 


290  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1815. 

his  own  powerful  conceptions,  of  invading  a  country  contain-J 
ing  thirty  millions  of  people,  girded  by  the  protecting  armies  ] 
of  coalesced  Europe,  and  imbued,  beyond  all  doubt,  with  an 
almost  general  objection  to  the  former  despot  who  now  put 
his  foot  on  its  shores,  with  imperial  pretensions  only  founded 
on  the  memory  of  his  by-gone  glory.  His  march  to  Paris  was 
a  miracle ;  and  the  vigor  of  his  subsequent  measures  redeems 
the  ambitious  imbecility  with  which  he  had  hurried  on  the 
catastrophe  of  his  previous  fall. 

The  flight  of  Louis  XVIII.  from  Paris  was  the  sure  signal 
to  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  in  which  he  took  refuge, 
that  it  was  about  to  become  the  scene  of  another  contest  for 
the  life  or  death  of  despotism.  Had  the  invasion  of  Belgium," 
which  now  took  place,  been  led  on  by  one  of  the  Bourbon 
family,  it  is  probable  that  the  priesthood,  the  people,  and  even 
the  nobility,  would  have  given  it  not  merely  a  negative  sup- 
port. But  the  name  of  Napoleon  was  a  bugbear  for  every 
class;  and  the  efforts  of  the  king  and  government,  which 
met  with  most  enthusiastic  support  in  the  northern  provinces, 
were  seconded  with  zeal  and  courage  by  the  rest  of  the  king- 
dom. 

The  national  force  was  soon  in  the  field,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  prince  of  Orange,  the  king's  eldest  son,  and  heir 
apparent  to  the  throne  for  which  he  now  prepared  to  fight. 
His  brother,  prince  Frederick,  commanded  a  division  under 
him.  The  English  army,  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  oc- 
cupied Brussels  and  the  various  cantonments  in  its  neighbor- 
hood; and  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  prince  Blucher, 
were  in  readiness  to  co-operate  with  their  allies  on  the  first 
movement  of  the  invaders. 

Napoleon,  hurrying  from  Paris  to  strike  some  rapid  and 
decisive  blow,  passed  the  Sambre  on  the  15th  of  June,  at  the  - 
Jiead  of  the  French  army,  150,000  strong,  driving  the  Prus- 
sians before  him  beyond  Charleroi  and  back  on  the  plain  of 
Fleurus  with  some  loss.  On  the  16th  was  fought  the  bloody 
battle  of  Ligny,  in  w^hich  the  Prussians  sustained  a  decided 
defeat;  but  tliey  retreated  in  good  order  on  the  little  river 
Lys,  follow^ed  by  marshal  Grouchy  with  30,000  men  detached 
by  Napoleon  in  their  pursuit.  On  the  same  day  the  British 
advanced  position  at  Quatre  Bras,  and  the  corps  cTarmee 
commanded  by  the  prince  of  Orange,  were  fiercely  attacked 
by  marshal  Ney ;  a  battalion  of  Belgian  infantry  and  a  bri- 
gade of  horse  artillery  having  been  engaged  in  a  skirmish 
the  preceding  evening  at  Frasnes  with  the  French  advanced 
troops. 

The  affair  of  Quatre  Bras  was  sustained  with  admirable 


1815.  BATTLE    OF    WATERLOO.  291 

firmness  by  the  allied  English  and  Netherland  forces,  against 
an  enemy  infinitely  superior  in  number,  and  commanded  by 
one  of  the  best  generals  in  France.  The  prince  of.  Orange, 
with  only  9000  men,  maintained  his  position  till  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  despite  the  continual  attacks  of  marshal 
Ney,  who  commanded  the  left  of  the  French  army,  consisting 
of  43,000  men.*  But  the  interest  of  this  combat,  and  the 
details  of  the  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  are  so  merged  in 
the  succeeding  battle,  which  took  place  ^n  the  18th,  that 
they  form  in  most  minds  a  combination  of  exploits  which  the 
interval  of  a  day  can  scarcely  be  considered  to  have  separated. 

The  17th  was  occupied  by  a  retrograde  movement  of  the 
allied  army,  directed  by  the  duke  of  Wellington,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  its  stand  on  the  position  he  had  previously 
fixed  on  for  the  pitched  battle,  the  decisive  nature  of  which 
his  determined  foresight  had  anticipated.  Several  affairs 
between  the  French  and  English  cavalry  took  place  during 
this  movement;  and  it  is  pretty  well  established  that  the 
enemy,  flushed  with  the  victory  over  Blucher  of  the  preced- 
ing day,  were  deceived  by  this  short  retreat  of  Wellington, 
and  formed  a  very  mistaken  notion  of  its  real  object,  or  of  the 
desperate  reception  destined  for  the  morrow's  attack. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo  has  been  over  and  over  described 
and  profoundly  felt,  until  its  records  may  be  said  to  exist  in 
the  very  hearts  and  memories  of  the  nations.  The  fiery  valor 
of  the  assault,  and  the  unshakable  firmness  of  the  resistance, 
are  perhaps  without  parallel  in  the  annals  of  war.  The  im- 
mense stake  depending  on  the  result,  the  grandeur  of  Napo- 
leon's isolated  efforts  against  tlie  flower  of  the  European 
forces,  and  the  awful  responsibility  resting  on  the  head  of 
their  great  leader,  give  to  this  conflict  a  romantic  sublimity, 
unshared  by  all  the  manoeuvring  of  science  in  a  hundred 
commonplace  combats  of  other  wars.  It  forms  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  battles.  It  is  to  the  full  as  memorable  as  an 
individual  event,  as  it  is  for  the  consequences  which  followed 
it.  It  was  fought  by  no  rules,  and  gained  by  no  tactics.  It 
was  a  fair  stand-up  fight  on  level  ground,  where  downright 
manly  courage  was  alone  to  decide  the  issue.  This  derogates 
in  nothing  from  the  splendid  talents  and  deep  knowledge  of 
the  rival  commanders.  Their  reputation  for  all  the  intricate 
qualities  of  generalship  rests  on  the  broad  base  of  previous 
victories.  This  day  was  to  be  won  by  strength  of  nerve  and 
steadiness  of  heart ;  and  a  moral  grandeur  is  thrown  over  its 

♦  Journal  de  Las  Cases,  t.  iii.  p.  336. 


292  HISTORY    OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  1815. 

result,  by  the  reflection  that  human  skill  had  little  to  do 
where  so  much  was  left  to  Providence. 

We  abstain  from  entering  on  details  of  the  battle.  It  is 
enough  to  state,  that  throughout  the  day  the  troops  of  the 
Netherlands  sustained  the  character  for  courage  which  so 
many  centuries  had  established.  Various  opinions  have  gone 
forth  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  Belgian  troops  on  this  memora- 
ble occasion.  Isolated  instances  were  possibly  found  among 
a  mass  of  several  thousands,  of  that  nervous  weakness  which 
neither  the  noblest  incitements  nor  the  finest  examples  can 
conquer.  Old  associations  and  feelings  not  effaced  might 
have  slackened  the  efforts  of  a  few,  directed  against  former 
comrades  or  personal  friends  whom  the  stern  necessity  of 
politics  had  placed  in  opposing  ranks.  Raw  troops  might  here 
and  there  have  shrunk  from  attacks  the  most  desperate  on 
record ;  but  that  the  great  principle  of  public  duty,  on  grounds 
purely  national,  pervaded  the  army,  is  to  be  found  in  the  offi- 
cial reports  of  its  loss :  2058  men  killed  and  1936  wounded 
prove  indelibly  that  the  troops  of  the  Netherlands  had  their 
full  share  in  the  honor  of  the  day.  The  victory  was  cemented 
by  the  blood  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  stood  the  brunt  of 
the  fight  with  his  gallant  soldiers.  His  conduct  was  con- 
formable to  the  character  of  his  whole  race,  and  to  his  own 
reputation  during  a  long  series  of  service  with  the  British 
army  in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  He  stood  bravely  at  the  head 
of  his  troops  during  the  murderous  conflict ;  or,  like  Welling- 
ton, in  whose  school  he  was  formed  and  whose  example  was 
beside  him,  rode  from  rank  to  rank  and  column  to  column, 
inspiring  his  men  by  the  proofs  of  his  untiring  courage. 

Several  anecdotes  are  related  of  the  prince's  conduct 
throughout  the  day.  One  is  remarkable  as  affording  an  ex- 
ample of  those  pithy  epigrams  of  the  battle-field  with  which 
history  abounds,  accompanied  by  an  act  that  speaks  a  fine 
knowledge  of  the  soldier's  heart.  -  On  occasion  of  one  pecu- 
liarly desperate  charge,  the  prince,  hurried  on  by  his  ardor, 
was  actually  in  the  midst  of  the  French,  and  was  in  the  great- 
est danger ;  when  a  Belgian  battalion  rushed  forward,  and, 
after  a  fierce  struggle,  repulsed  the  enemy  and  disengaged 
the  prince.  In  the  impulse  of  his  admiration  and  gratitude, 
he  tore  from  his  breast  one  of  those  decorations  gained  by  his 
own  conduct  on  some  preceding  occasion,  and  flung  it  among 
the  battalion,  calling  out,  "  Take  it,  take  it,  my  lads !  you 
have  all  earned  it !"  This  decoration  was  immediately  grap- 
pled for,  and  tied  to  the  regimental  standard,  amidst  loud 
ehouts  of  "  Long  live  the  prince !"  and  vows  to  defend  the 


1815.       EFFECTS    OF    THE    BATTLE    OF    WALERLOO.        293 

trophy,  in  the  very  utterance  of  which  many  a  brave  fellow 
received  tlie  stroke  of  death. 

A  short  time  afterwards,  and  just  half  an  hour  before  that 
terrible  charge  of  the  whole  line,  which  decided  the  victory, 
the  prince  was  struck  by  a  musket-ball  in  the  left  shoulder. 
He  was  carried  from  the  field,  and  conveyed  that  evening  to 
Brussels,  in  the  same  cart  with  one  of  his  wounded  aids-de-  ' 
camp,  supported  by  another,  and  displaying  throughout  as 
much  inditference  to  pain  as  he  had  previously  shown  con- 
tempt of  danger. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo  consolidated  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  wound  of  the  prince  of  Orange  was,  per- 
haps, one  of  the  most  fortunate  that  was  ever  received  by  an 
individual,  or  sympathized  in  by  a  nation.  To  a  warlike  peo- 
ple, wavering  in  their  allegiance,  this  evidence  of  the  prince's 
valor  acted  like  a  talisman  against  disaffection.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  kingdom  was  immediately  proceeded  on.  The 
commission,  charged  with  tlie  revision  of  the  fundamental 
law,  and  the  modification  required  by  the  increase  of  terri- 
tory, presented  its  report  on  the  31st  of  July.  The  inaugura- 
tion of  the  king  took  place  at  Brussels  on  the  21st  of  Septem- 
ber, in  presence  of  the  states-general :  and  the  ceremony  re- 
ceived additional  interest  from  the  appearance  of  the  sovereign 
supported  by  his  two  sons  who  had  so  valiantly  fought  for 
the  rights  he  now  swore  to  maintain ;  the  heir  to  the  crown 
yet  bearing  his  w^oiinded  arm  in  a  scarf^  and  showing  in  his 
countenance  the  marks  of  recent  suffering. 

The  constitution  was  finally  accepted  by  the  nation,  and 
the  principles  of  the  government  were  stipulated  and  fixed  in 
one  grand  view — that  of  the  union,  and,  consequently,  the 
force  of  the  new  state. 

It  has  been  asked  by  a  profound  and  sagacious  inquirer,  or 
at  least  the  question  is  put  forth  on  undoubted  authority  in  his 
name,  "Why  did  England  create  for  herself  a  difficulty,  and 
what  will  be  by  and  by  a  natural  enemy,  in  uniting  Holland 
and  Belgium,  in  place  of  managing  those  two  immense  re- 
sources to  her  commerce  by  keeping  them  separate  1  for  Hol- 
land, without  manufactures,  was  the  natural  mart  for  those  of 
England,  while  Belgium  under  an  English  prince  had  been 
the  route  for  constantly  inundating  France  and  Germany."* 

So  asked  Napoleon,  and  England  may  answer  and  justify 
her  conduct  so  impugned,  on  principles  consistent  with  the 

'   *  Las  Cases,  Journal  de  la  Vie  pi  iv6e  et  Conversations  de  Napoleon,  t. 
iii.  p.  83. 

Z2 


294  HISTORY    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  1815. 

general  wishes  and  the  common  good  of  Europe.  The  dis- 
cussion of  Jhe  question  is  foreign  to  our  purpose,  which  is  to 
trace  the  cTrcumstances,  not  to  argue  on  the  policy,  that  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  Netherlands  as  they  now  exist.  But 
it  appears  that  the  different  integral  parts  of  the  nation  were 
amalgamated  from  deep-formed  designs  for  their  mutual  bene- 
fit. Belgium  was  not  given  to  Holland,  as  the  already-cited 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  might  at  first  sight  seem  to  im- 
ply :  nor  was  Holland  allotted  to  Belgium.  But  they  were 
grafted  together,  with  all  the  force  of  legislative  wisdom ;  not 
that  one  might  be  dominant  and  the  other  oppressed,  but  that 
both  should  bend  to  form  an  arch  of  common  strength,  able  to 
resist  the  weight  of  such  invasions  as  had  perpetually  perilled, 
and  often  crushed,  their  separate  independence. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Abercrombie,  Sir  Ralph,  commands 
the  armament  established  for  the 
House  of  Orange,  270. 
Aix-Ia-Chapelle,  treaty  of,  260. 
Albert  of  Saxony,  65. 
Albert,  Archduke,  arrives  at  Brussels, 
170.     Captures  Calais,  171.     Mar- 
riage and  inauguration  of,  173.  En- 
try of,  into  the   Netherlands,  179. 
Defeated  by  prince  Maurice,  182. 
Alencon,  the  duke  of,  appointed  sove- 
reign, 144.    Obliges  Parma  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Cambray,  and  enters 
the  town  triumphantly,  146.    Made 
duke  of  Anjou;  repairs  to  England 
and  offers  marriage  to  Elizabeth,  ib. 
Attacks  Antwerp,  148.    His  death, 
150. 
Alliance,  quadruple,  257. 
Alva,  duke  of,  one  of  the  council  of 
Philip  II.  at  Segovia,  108.     Arrival 
of,  at  Brussels,  115.     Summons  a 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  116.    Retirement,  117. 
Horrors  of  his  administration,  119. 
Defeats  the  patriots  and  the  prince 
of  Orange,  121.    Causes  sixty  citi- 
zens to  be  executed,  123.    His  recall 
and  death,  126. 
Anabaptists,  rise  of,  71. 
Andrew  of  Austria  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  temporary  government,  173. 
Anne  of  England,  acc«ssion  of,  253. 
Carries  on  the  war  with  France 
energetically,  253. 
Anthony  duke  of  Brabant,  death  of,  50. 
Antwerp,  sack  of,  132.    Siege  of,  156. 
Effects  of  the  fire-ships,  157.    Ar 
minius,  200.    His  death,  ib. 
Arminians,  persecution  of,  204. 
Armada,  the  invincible,  163. 
Arschot,  duke  of,  made  governor  of 
Flanders,  138.    Foiled  in  his  pro- 
jects, ib. 

B. 

Baldwin  Bras-defer,  32. 

Baldwin  of  the  Comely  Beard,  34. 

Barneveldt  recovers  Brille,  Flessin- 
gue,  and  the  fort  of  Rammekins,  202. 
Opposition  of,  to  the  ambitious 
views  of  Maurice,  203.  Resignation 
and  imprisonment  of,  205.  Death 
of,  206. 

Batavians,  degeneracy  of,  21. 

Belgium,  invasion  of,  219. 


Blake,  admiral,  engagement  of,  with 
Admiral  Tromp,  234. 

Boisot,  success  of,  in  favor  of  the  pa- 
triots, 127. 

Bokelzoon,  71.  Imprisonment  of,  in 
an  iron  cage,  ib. 

Bonaparte,  a  French  general,  268.  Ele- 
vation of,  271.  Decline  of,  273.  Ab- 
dication of,  283.  Reappearance  of, 
in  France,  290. 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  king  of  Holland, 
271.     Ab<lication  of,  272. 

Bouvines,  battle  of,  42. 

Brussels,  union  of,  136. 

Buckingham,  the  English  ambassador, 
failure  of,  to  corrupt  the  prince  of 
Orange,  244. 

C. 
Cambray,  league  of,  67.    Peace  of,  71. 
CampoFormio,  treaty  of,  268. 
Carlos,  don,  death  of,  120. 
Cassambrot,  John,  punishes  the  icono- 
clasts, 108. 
Cassel,  battle  of,  46. 
Cassimir,  John,  count  palatine,  re- 
pairs to  the  assistance  of  the  States, 
141. 
Cassimir   of  Nassau,    count  Henry, 

death  of.  220. 
Cateau-Cambresis.  peace  of,  81. 
Cae&ar,  invasion  of,  17. 
Charlemagne,  government  of,  29. 
Charles  count  of  Charolois,  called  **  the 
Rash,"  5G.    Contrasted  with  Louia 
XI.  of  France,  57.    Policy  of,  58. 
Takes  Louis  prisoner,  ib.    Plan  of 
aggrandizement  of,  60.     Conquers 
Lorraine,  61.  Defeat  at  Morat,  and 
death  of,  62. 
Charles  of  Egmont,  65. 
Charles  V.,  visit  of,  to  England,  70. 
Punishes  the  people  of  Ghent,  72. 
Severity  against  the  reformers,  73. 
Retirement  and  death  of,  74. 
Charles  I.  of  England,  216. 
Charles  II.  of  England,  restoration  of, 
238.    Perfidy  of,  240.    Exacts  hu- 
miliating conditions  of  peace  from 
the    United    Provinces,    243.     Hia 
death,  247. 
Charles  VI.,  emperor,  death  of,  259. 
Christian  of  Brunswick,  211. 
Civilis  repulses  the  Romans,  21. 
Commerce,  progress  of,  175. 
Confederates,  perfect  organization  of, 
98.    Consolidation  of,  plans  of,  ib. 


296 


INDEX. 


Procession  of,  to  the  palace,  and 
banquet  of,  99.  Adopt  the  title  of 
Gueux,  100.     Dissolution  of,  114. 

Congress  at  the  Hague,  195. 

Cortenburgh,  the  contracts  of,  45. 

Counts  of  the  empire,  29. 

Cromwell  insists  on  conditions  of 
peace  humiliating  to  the  States,  236. 
His  death,  238. 

Crusades,  the,  42. 

D. 

D'Artaveldt,  James,  the  brewer  of 
G  hent,  40.  Conservator  of  the  peace 
of  Flanders,  47.    His  death,  ib. 

Dathen,  Peter,  104. 

D'Avila  defeats  Louis  of  Nassau  at 
Mookerheyde,  128. 

De  Barneveldt,  185.  Advocates  the 
cause  of  peace,  192.  Opposes  Mau- 
rice, 199.  Embraces  Arminianism, 
200. 

De  Berlaimont,  count,  at  the  head  of 
the  financial  department,  87. 

De  Brederode  fails  in  an  attempt  to 
see  the  governant,  112.  Defeated  at 
Valenciennes,  and  flies  toCrermany, 
113. 

De  Granvelle,  Anthony  Perrenotte, 
bishop  of  Arras,  83.  Character  of,  87. 

DeGroeneveld,  Renier,  plot  of,  against 
Maurice,  212.   Death  of,  213. 

De  la  Marck,  William,  success  of,  in 
surprising  Brille,  124.  A  general 
insurrection  the  consequence  of  his 
success,  ib.  Deprived  of  his  com 
mand,  125. 

De  Male,  count  Louis,  defeat  of,  48. 

De  Marnix,  Philip,  lord  of  St.  Aide- 
gonde,  98. 

De  Neyen,  John,  employed  to  nego- 
tiate peace,  192. 

De  Ruyter,  death  of,  245. 

Dettingen,  battle  of,  259. 

De  Winter,  imprisonment  of,  270. 

De  Witt,  Cornellizon,  admiral,impris- 
oned,231,  and  liberated,  232. 

De  Witts,  the,  murder  of,  243. 

Don  John  declared  an  enemy,  and  or- 
dered to  quit  the  country,  140.  As- 
sisted by  the  prince  of  Parma,  ib. 
His  death,  141. 

Dort,  synod  of,  206. 

Dordrecht,  situation  of,  36. 

Downs,  battle  of,  220. 

Dumouriez  gains  the  victory  of  Je- 
mappes,  267.  Defeat  and  flight  of, 
268. 

Duncan,  Sir  Adam,  encounters  the 
Dutch  fleet,  270. 


Ecclesiastical  power,  rise  of,  34. 
Edict,  the  perpetual,  136. 


Edward  IIL  joined  by  the  Flemings 
46. 

Egmont,  count,  popularity  of,  92. 
Sent  to  Philip  on  a  mission,  94. 
Mfide  prisoner,  116. 

Elizabeth  of  England  solicits  mercy 
of  Phi  lip  for  the  States,  131.  Assists 
the  confederates,  136.  Sends  the 
Earl  of  Leicester  to  Holland,  160. 
Recalls  her  troops  and  demands  pay- 
ment of  Iier  loans  from  the  states- 
general,  179.    Her  death,  185. 

Epinoi,  the  princess,  defends  Tour- 
nay  in  the  absence  of  the  governor, 
146. 

Ernest,  archduke,  accused  of  being  in 
league  with  others  to  assassinate 
prince  Maurice,  169.  His  death,  170. 

Eugene,  prince,  carries  on  the  war 
with  France,  253. 

F. 

Fitz-Osborn,  William,  death  of,  38. 

Flanders,  commencement  of,  32.  Com- 
merce of,  38.  Attached  to  France, 
yet  independent  of  it,  ib. 

Fleurus,  battle  of,  268. 

Fontenoy,  battle  of,  259. 

Franks,  character  of,  23.  Defeat  of,  24. 

Francis  I.  of  France,  70. 

Francis  II.,  successor  of  Leopold,  267. 

Frederick,  the  elector  palatine,  210. 

Friesland,  final  conquest  of,  27. 

Frisons,  19.  Union  of,  with  the  Flem- 
ish people,  29.  Privileges  of,  analo- 
gous to  Magna Charta,  31.  Political 
institutions  of,  41. 


George  II.  achieves  the  victory  of 
Dettingen,  259. 

Gerard,  Balthazar,  murders  the  prince 
of  Orange,  152.    Death  of.  153. 

Ghent,  rebellion  of,  55.  Pacification 
of,  133. 

Gildoniae  Charta,  30. 

Giles  de  Rypergherste  conquers  the 
dauphin  of  France,  in  a  pitched  bat- 
tle, 47. 

Gomar,  200. 

Gomarists,  called  Remonstrants,  2(M). 

Godfrey  king  of  the  Normans,  33.  As- 
sassination of,  ib. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  42. 

Godfrey  count  of  Ardenne,  lieutenant 
of  Lower  Lorraine,  33. 

Granvelle  obtains  the  archiepiscopal 
see  of  Mechlin,  and  title  of  primate 
of  the  Low  Countries,  88.  Confede- 
racy against  him,  90.  Unpopularity 
of,  93.     Dismissal  from  office,  ib. 

Grotius,  imprisonment  of,  206.  Escape 
of,  209.  Character  of  his  writings, 
226. 


Gueldere,  wars  of,  65. 
Gueux,  the  title  of,  adopted  by  the 
confederates,  100. 

H. 

Haranguer,  captain,  surprises  Breda, 
105. 

Hautain,  admiral,  196. 

Heeujskirk,  brilliant  victory  of,  190. 

Hein,  Peter,  naval  success  of,  216. 

Hembvse,  rebellion  of,  139.  Death  of, 
151.' 

Henry  V.  of  England,  alliance  of, 
with  Philip  duke  of  Burgundy,  53. 

Henry,  Frederick,  brother  to  prince 
Maurice,  181.  Succeeds  his  brother, 
215.  Receives  the  title  of  highness 
in  place  of  excellency,  221.  His 
death,  224. 

Henry  IV.  of  France,  defeat  of,  166. 
Gives  assistance  to  the  states,  179. 
Assassination  of,  198. 

Heinsius,  the  grand  pensionary,  fol- 
lows up  the  views  of  William  II., 
252. 

Holland,  formation  of,  36. 

HoUe,  count  of,  97. 

Hoogerbeets,  imprisonment  of,  206. 

Horn,  count,  popularity  of,  92.  Re- 
tirement of,  102. 

I. 

Inquisition,  establishment  of,  95. 

Isabella,  wife  of  Albert,  entry  of,  to 
the  Netherlands,  179.  Harangues 
the  troops,  180.    Her  death,  218. 


Jacqueline  of  Holland.  52.  Separation 
from  her  husband,  flight  to  England, 
and  projected  marriage  with  Glou- 
cester, 53.  Defeated  and  abandoned 
by  Gloucester,  54. 

James  I.  of  England,  his  reception  of 
the  ambassadors  from  the  states- 
general,  185.  Enters  the  polemical 
lists  as  a  Gomarist,  201.  Refuses 
assistance  to  Frederick  tho  elector, 
210. 

James  II.  of  England,  accession  of, 
247.  Rejects  the  assistance  of  Louis 
XIV.  against  the  prince  of  Orange, 
248. 

Jaureguay,  John,  attempt  of,  to  mur- 
der the  prince  of  Orange,  147. 

Jemappes,  victory  of,  267. 

John  the  Fearless,  countof  Nevers,50. 
Wars  with  Great  Britain,  ib. 

John  of  Bavaria,  the  Pitiless,  51. 

John  duke  of  Brabant,  marriage  of,  52. 

John,  don,  of  Austria,  arrival  of,  in 
Luxembourg,  134.  Entry  of,  to 
Brussels,  13(j.  Takes  possession  of 
the  citadel,  137. 


INDEX.  297 


Joseph  II.  successor  to  Maria  Theresa, 

261.    His  death,  266. 
Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald 

marriage  of,  32. 
Justin  of  Nassau,  163. 

L. 

Lambert  and  Reginald,  struggle  of, 
for  independence,  33. 

Lambert  II.  count  of  Louvain,  34. 

Ledenberg,  imprisonment  of,  206. 
Death  of,  ib. 

Leicester  invades  Holland,  160.  Un- 
popularity of,  161.    Death  of,  164. 

Leopold,  successor  to  Joseph  II.,  266. 
Death  of,  267. 

Leyden,  siege  of,  128. 

Ligny,  battle  of,  290. 

Lorraine,  Higher  and  Lower,  34. 

Louis,  count,  of  Cressy,  45. 

Louis  XI.  of  France,  57.  Imprison- 
ment of,  58.  Policy  towards  Charles 
duke  of  Burgundy,  61.  Defeat  of, 
at  Guinegate,  63. 

Louis  XII.  of  France,  67. 

Louis  XIV.  arrogates  supreme  power, 
247.  Rejoices  at  the  death  of  Wil- 
liam of  Nassau,  253.  Too  old  to 
command  his  troops,  254.  Reduced 
to  a  state  of  humiliation,  255. 

Louis  XV.  invades  the  Austrian 
Netherlands,  259. 

Louis  XVIII.,  flight  of,  from  Paris, 
346. 

Louis  of  Nassau,  success  of,  in  favor 
of  the  patriots,  124.  Defeat  and 
death  of,  128. 

M. 

Mansfield,  count  of,  successor  to  Par- 
ma, 168. 

Maria  Theresa,  heroism  of,  259.  Es- 
tablished in  her  rights,  260.  Re- 
duced to  widowhood,  261. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  67.  Negotiation 
with  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  68. 

Marguerite,  Madame,  duchess  of  Par- 
ma, made  governant-general,  84. 
Issues  orders  favorable  to  the  re- 
formers, 103.  Sends  the  Prince  of 
Orange  to  appease  them,  107.  En- 
deavors to  destroy  the  union  of  the 
patriot  lords.  111.  Establishes  a 
new  oath  of  allegiance,  113.  Re- 
monstrates with  Philip  about  his 
invasion  under  Alva,  115.  Retire-, 
ment  and  death  of,  117. 

Marlborough,  duke  of,  carries  on  the 
war  with  France,  253.  Opens  his 
first  campaign,  254. 

Martel,  Charles,  defeat  of,  26.  Duke 
of  the  Franks,  27. 

Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Rash, 
62.    Maj-riage  of,  63. 


298 


INDEX. 


Mathias,  archduke,  made  governor, 
138.  Taken  prisoner,  139.  Libera- 
tion of,  ib.  Installation  of.  140, 
Retires  to  Antwerp,  ib. 

Maurice,  prince,  becomes  prince  of 
Orange,  126.  Made  stadtholder, 
captain-general,  and  admiral  of 
Holland  and  Zealand,  160.  Unites 
in  himself  the  whole  power  of  com- 
mand, 162.  Takes  advantage  of 
the  absence  of  Parma,  160.  Checks 
the  cruelty  of  Mendoza,  178.  At- 
tempts the  invasion  of  Flanders, 
180.  Invests  Nieuport,  ib.  Defeats 
the  royalists,  182.  Takes  the  field 
against  Spinola,  189.  Hostility  of, 
to  Barnevcldt,  192.  Becomes  a  Go- 
marist,  200.  Receives  the  order  of 
the  Garter,  20J.  Intrigues  for  regal 
power,  203.  Advances  the  Calvin- 
jsts' party,  204.  Defeats  Spinola  at 
the  siege  of  Bergen-op-zoom,  211. 
Plot  against  hin^,  212.  He  punishes 
the  conspirators,  213.  His  death, 
215. 

Maximilian  of  Austria,  marriage  of, 

63.  Imprisonment  of,  ib. 
Mazarin,  cardinal,  223. 
Menapians,  19. 

Mendoza,  cruelties  of,  177.  Wounded 

and  taken  prisoner,  183. 
Money-fleet,  the,  217. 
Mook,  battle  of,  128. 
Morat,  battle  of,  61. 
Mons,  seized  on  by  Louis  of  Nassau 

and  De  Genlis;  retaken  by  Alva's 

son,  124. 
Munster,  treaty  of,  224. 

N. 
Netherlands,  situation  of,  15.  State 
of,  in  the  days  of  Pliny,  16.  Eftects 
from  inundations  of  the  sea  and 
rivers,  ib.  Invasion  of  Cscsar,  17. 
Effects  of  the  Roman  alliance,  20. 
Tlie  southern  portion  called  Belgic 
Gaul,  21.  Introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, 25.  Under  Charlemagne, 
2i).  Commerce,  and  legislation  of, 
42.  Revolt  of  the  towns,  45.  Junc- 
tion of  the  Flemings  with  Edward 
in.  of  England,  46.  Feudality  de- 
feated by  civic  freedom,  48.  Sove- 
reignty assumed  by  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  ib.  Formation  of  a  na- 
tional council,  50.  Feeble  state  un- 
der the  government  of  Maximilian, 

64.  Government  of  Margaret  of 
Austria,  68.  Progress  of  the  refor- 
mation, ib.  War  with  France,  70. 
The  whole  of  the  provinces  united 
under  one  sovereign,  74.  Commer- 
cial wealth,  ib.  Cultivation  of  the 
fine  arts,  70.  Opulent  state  of  the 
nation,  85.  Inefficiency  of  the  gov- 


ernment under  Philip  II.,  86.  The 
inquisition  established,  95.  Com- 
mencement of  the  revolution,  96. 
The  manifesto  of  the  confederates, 
98.  Progress  of  the  reformation, 
103.  Abolition  of  the  inquisition, 
106.  Compromise  with  the  reform- 
ers, 108.  Conference  at  Tennonde, 
111.  Commencement  of  the  civil 
war,  112.  Dissolution  of  the  con- 
federacy, 114.  Alva's  arrival  and 
tyranny,  116.  General  horror  at  the 
death  of  Don  Carlos  and  the  queen, 
120.  Disaster  of  the  patriots,  121. 
Naval  force  of  the  patriots,  122. 
General  insurrection,  124.  Distress- 
ed state  of  the  country,  126.  Evil 
effects  of  the  plague,  127.  Anarchy 
and  confusion  after  the  death  of 
Requesens,  131.  The  members  of 
the  council-chamber  imprisoned, 
i:i2.  'J'he  states-general  assemble  at 
Ghent,  133.  Demolition  of  the  cita- 
dels rendered  odious  by  the  excesses 
of  the  Spanish,  137.  Revival  of 
civil  war,  140.  They  renounce  the 
sovereignty  of  Spain,  143.  Public 
ingratitude  towards  the  prince  of 
Orange,  150.  The  power  of  Spain 
established  again  in  the  whole 
province  of  Flanders,  155.  Lament- 
able  state  of  the  country,  ib.  Nego- 
tiations opened  with  France  and 
England  at  once,  159.  Suspicion 
and  dislike  towards  England,  161. 
The  effects  of  the  spreading  of  the 
reformation  and  enlightenment, 
174.  The  States  unsuccessful  in  a 
naval  expedition,  179.  Success  of 
the  royalists,  180.  Prince  Maurice 
and  Spinola.  186.  Maritime  enter- 
prise, 188.  Disgraceful  naval  affair, 
190.  Negotiations  for  peace,  191. 
Assembly  of  ambassadors,  193.  A 
twelve  years'  truce,  196.  Religious 
dissensions,  199.  Expiration  of  the 
twelve  years'  truce,  209.  War  in 
Germany,  210.  Naval  success,  216. 
Naval  success  of  the  republic,  220. 
Civil  wars  in  England,  222.  Finan- 
cial embarrassments,  223.  Litera- 
ture and  the  arts,  226.  Commerce, 
228.  Manners  of  the  people,  229. 
Naval  war  with  England,  233.  The 
navigation  act,  234.  Naval  suc- 
cesses, 237.  Hostilities  renewed,  239. 
The  French  invade  Holland,  242. 
Holland  perseveres  in  the  contest 
with  France,  245.  English  revolu- 
tion, 248.  War  renewed,  254.  Seven 
jears'  war,  260.  Peace  with  Eng- 
land, 262.  Discontent  in  Belgium, 
264.  Insurrection  and  confedera- 
tion, 206.  War  l)etween  France 
and  Austria,  267.  Belgium  a  French 


KVDEX. 


299 


province,  2G8.  Abolition  of  the 
office  and  title  of  stadtholder,  269. 
Decline  of  the  French  power,  273. 
Restoration  of  the  prince  of  Orange, 
275.    New  constitution,  282. 

Niniefifueu,  peace  of,  245. 

Nieuport,  battle  of,  181. 

Normans,  not  renowned  before  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  32.  Forma- 
tion of  the  Monarchy,  285. 

O. 

Orange,  prince  of,  William  I.  of  Nas- 
sau, opposition  of,  to  Granvelle,  DO. 
Opposition  of,  to  the  views  of  Philip, 
94.  Is  sent  to  appease  the  con- 
federates, 107.  Summons  his  bro- 
ther Louis,  counts  Egmont,  Horn, 
and  Hoogstraeten,  to  a  conference 
at  Termonde,  111.  Refuses  the  new 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  retires  to 
Germany,  114.  Opposition  to  Alva's 
tyranny,  120.  Defeated  by  Alva, 
and  retires  to  France,  121.  Returns 
to  Brabant,  124.  Relieves  the  in- 
habitants of  Leyden  by  destrcvying 
the  besieging  army  with  an  inun- 
dation of  the  ocean,  129.  Policy  of, 
with  queen  Elizabeth,  131.  Sends 
an  admonitory  memorial  to  the 
states-general,  136.  Made  governor 
of  Brabant,  137.  Draws  up  the  basis 
of  a  treaty  for  Mathias's  accept- 
ance, 138.  Assembles  the  states- 
general  to  abjure  the  dominion  of 
Spain,  143.  Answers  Philip's  edict, 
145.  Shot  in  the  head  by  an  assas- 
sin, 147.  His  recovery,  148.  Pro- 
tects thedukeof  Anjou  from  public 
reprobation— retires  to  Zealand, 
150.    His  death,  152. 

Ostend,  siege  of,  184. 

P. 

Paris,  treaty  of,  284. 

Parma,  duchess  of,  retirement  of,  117. 

Parma,  prince  of,  marriage  of,  97. 
Succeeds  Don  John,  142.  Raises  the 
siege  of  Cambray,  146.  Besieges  Ant- 
werp, 156.  Summoned  to  France, 
165.  Defeats  Henry  VI.,  166.  Re- 
tires to  Spa,  and  is  again  summoned 
to  France,  167.    His  death,  ib. 

Philip  the  Fair,  45. 

Philip  the  Bold,  49. 

Philip  of  Cleves,  64. 

Philip  of  Burgundy,  54.  Called  the 
Good,  55.    Death  of,  56. 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  77.  Ferocity  of, 
79.  Policy  of,  80.  His  war  with 
Henry  II.  of  France  and  pope  Paul 
IV.,  ib.  His  intrigues  for  despotic 
power,  82.  Opposed  by  the  States, 
84.  Orders  the  edicts  against  heresy 
to  be  put  in  execution,  94.  Duplicity 


of,  95.  Establishes  the  inquisition, 
ib.    Abolishes  the  inquisition,  106. 

^Vindictiveness  and  duplicity  of, 
110.  Influences  persons  to  attempt 
the  assassination  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  147.  Negotiates  for  peace 
with  France,  172.   His  death,  174. 

Picaroons,  the,  168. 

Plague,  the,  breaks  out,  127. 

Pragmatic  sanction,  257. 

Pyrenees,  peace  of  the,  238. 

a. 

auatre  Bras,  battle  of,  290. 

R. 

Radbod,  king  of  the  Frisons,  26. 

Reformation,  causes  of  its  progress 
being  checked,  89. 

Reformers  divided  into  Anabaptists, 
Calvinists,  and  Lutherans,  103. 
Meet  in  every  direction  in  arms,  ib. 
Send  an  address  to  the  governant, 
108.  Compromise  of,  ib.  Erect 
wooden  churches,  110.  Reginald 
and  Lambert.   (See  Lambert.) 

Requesens  successor  to  Alva,  126. 
Defeat  of,  127.  Sells  his  plate  to  pay 
the  arrears  of  the  soldiery,  128. 
Mutinous  state  of  his  army,  ib. 
Fixes  on  Zealand  as  the  scene  of  an 
expedition,  129.     His  death,  130. 

Richelieu,  cardinal,  death  of,  222. 

Richilde,  countess,  38.    Defeat  of,  ib. 

Robert  count  of  Namur,  34. 

Robert  the  Frison,  38. 

Rubens,  227. 

Ryhove,  death  of,  151. 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  250. 

S. 

Saxons,  preponderating  power  of,  24. 

Schwarzemberg,  97. 

Schenck,  Martin,  104.  His  death,  165. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  160.  His  death,  161. 

Spinola  takes  the  field  against  prince 
Maurice,  186.  Sent  with  20,000 
men  to  support  the  duke  of  Neu- 
bourg,  197.  Defeat  of.  211.  Called 
to  the  command  of  the  Spanish 
troops  in  Italy,  217. 

Stoutenbourg,  William  van,  his  re- 
vengeful plot  against  prince  Mau- 
rice, 212.  His  escape  to  Brussels,  213. 

Strieker,  Herman,  103. 


Termonde,  conference  at.  111. 
Thierry,  count,  governs  the  western 

extremity  of  Friesland,  36.    Takes 

Godfrey  prisoner,  ib. 
Trees  of  Upstal,  the,  39. 
Tromp,  Van,  victory  of,  220.    Naval 

engagement  of,  with  admiral  Blake, 

234.    His  death,  236. 


300 


INDEX. 


U. 


Utrecht,  union  of,  142. 

Utrecht,  peace  of,  256. 
V. 

Valenciennes,  siege  of,  112.  Surren- 
der of,  113. 

Vanderdoes,  Jean,  burgomaster  of 
Leyden,  128. 

Vander  Noot  establishes  a  committee 
at  Breda,  265.  His  flight,  267. 

Vervins,  peace  of,  173. 

Viglius,  president  of  the  privy-coun- 
cil, 87.  Opposes  the  rapacity  of 
Alva,  122. 

Vonck  aids  the  cause  of  constitu- 
tional freedom,  265. 
W. 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  291. 

Westphalia,  peace  of,  225. 

William  the  Bastard  of  Normandy, 
supplied  with  men  and  ships  by 
Flanders,  for  the  conquest  of  Eng- 
land, 37. 


William  Frederick  count  of  Nassau 
attempts  to  gain  possession  of  Am- 
sterdam, 232.    His  death,  233. 

William  V.  proclaimed  stadtholder, 
260.  Installation  and  marriage  of, 
261. 

William  prince  of  Orange  saves  hii 
country,  244.  Marriage  of,  246.  In- 
vades England,  and  is  made  king^ 
248.  His  inveterate  hostility  to 
Louis  XIV.,  249.  His  death,  252. 

Willebrod,  St.,  success  as  a  mis* 
sionary,  27. 

Witikind,  first  azing  or  judge,  ib. 

William  I.  prince-sovereign  of  the 
Netherlands,  282. 


Y. 

York,   duke   of,   268. 
Pichegru,  269. 


Defeated  by 


Zuriczee  admits  to  surrender,  132. 


THE  END. 


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